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A AMS
Arctic Air Mass
AAAS
American Association for the Advancement of Science
Absolutely Stable Air
An atmospheric condition that exists when the environmental lapse rate is less than the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
Absolutely Unstable Air
An atmospheric condition that exists when the environmental lapse rate is greater than the dry adiabatic lapse rate.
Absorption
The process in which incident radiant energy is retained by a substance by conversion to some other form of energy.
Abutment Seeping
Reservoir water that moves through seams or pores in the natural abutment material and exits as seepage.
ACCAS
(usually pronounced ACK-kis) - AltoCumulus CAStellanus; mid-level clouds (bases generally 8 to 15 thousand feet), of which at least a fraction of their upper parts show cumulus-type development. These clouds often are taller than they are wide, giving them a turret-shaped appearance. ACCAS clouds are a sign of instability aloft, and may precede the rapid development of thunderstorms.
Accessory Cloud
A cloud which is dependent on a larger cloud system for development and continuance. Roll clouds, shelf clouds, and wall clouds are examples of accessory clouds.
ACCUMS
accumulation
ACRS
Across
Action Stage
The stage which, when reached by a rising stream, represents the level where the NWS or a partner/user needs to take some type of mitigation action in preparation for possible significant hydrologic activity. The appropriate action is usually defined in a weather forecast office (WFO) hydrologic services manual. Action stage can be the same as forecast issuance stage (see / forecast issuance stage/).
Active Conservation Storage
In hydrologic terms, the portion of water stored in a reservoir that can be released for all useful purposes such as municipal water supply, power, irrigation, recreation, fish, wildlife, etc. Conservation storage is the volume of water stored between the inactive pool elevation and flood control stage.
Active Storage Capacity
In hydrologic terms, the total amount of reservoir capacity normally available for release from a reservoir below the maximum storage level. It is total or reservoir capacity minus inactive storage capacity. More specifically, it is the volume of water between the outlet works and the spillway crest.
Active Surge Region (ASR)
In solar-terrestrial terms, an Active Region that exhibits a group or series of spike-like surges that rise above the limb.
ADAS
Automated Data Acquisition System
ADDS
Aviation Digital Data Service
Adiabatic Lapse Rate
The rate of decrease of temperature experienced by a parcel of air when it is lifted in the atmosphere under the restriction that it cannot exchange heat with its environment. For parcels that remain unsaturated during lifting, the (dry adiabatic) lapse rate is 9.8°C per kilometer.
Adiabatic Process
A process which occurs with no exchange of heat between a system and its environment.
Adirondack Type Snow Sampling Set
In hydrologic terms, a snow sampler consisting of a 5-foot fiberglass tube, 3 inches in diameter, with a serrated-edge steel cutter at one end and a twisting handle at the other. This sampler has a 60-inch snow depth capacity.
Advanced Baseline Imager (ABI)
A moderate resolution imaging system on the GOES and Himawari family of satellites.
Advanced Hydrologic Prediction Service (AHPS)
A web-based suite of accurate and information-rich forecast products. They display the magnitude and uncertainty of occurrence of floods or droughts, from hours to days and months in advance. These graphical products are useful information and planning tools for many economic and emergency managers.
ADVIS
In hydrologic terms, a program which combines the Antecedent Precipitation Index (API) method of estimating runoff with unit hydrograph theory to estimate streamflow for a headwater basin.
Advisory
(Abbrev. ADVY)- Highlights special weather conditions that are less serious than a warning. They are for events that may cause significant inconvenience, and if caution is not exercised, it could lead to situations that may threaten life and/or property.
Aeroallergens
Any of a variety of allergens such as pollens, grasses, or dust carried by winds.
Aerosol
A system of colloidal particles dispersed in a gas, such as smoke or fog.
AFOS
Automation of Field Operations and Services. Computer system linking NWS offices for the transmission of weather data. This system was installed in the early to mid 1980s and it is being replaced by Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System (AWIPS).
AFSS
Automated Flight Service Station
AGDISP
A particular atmospheric disperison model used for treating the transport and diffusion of aerially sprayed pest control agents in agricultural applications.
AGFS
Aviation Gridded Forecast System
AHOS
Automatic Hydrologic Observing System
AHOS-S
Automatic Hydrologic Observing System - Satellite
AHOS-T
Automatic Hydrologic Observing System - Telephone
Air Mass
A body of air covering a relatively wide area and exhibiting horizontally uniform properties.
Air Mass Thunderstorm
Generally, a thunderstorm not associated with a front or other type of synoptic-scale forcing mechanism. Air mass thunderstorms typically are associated with warm, humid air in the summer months; they develop during the afternoon in response to insolation, and dissipate rather quickly after sunset. They generally are less likely to be severe than other types of thunderstorms, but they still are capable of producing downbursts, brief heavy rain, and (in extreme cases) hail over 3/4 inch in diameter.

Since all thunderstorms are associated with some type of forcing mechanism, synoptic-scale or otherwise, the existence of true air-mass thunderstorms is debatable.
Air Stagnation
A meteorological situation in which there is a major buildup of air pollution in the atmosphere. This usually occurs when the same air mass is parked over the same area for several days. During this time, the light winds cannot "cleanse" the buildup of smoke, dust, gases, and other industrial air pollution.
Air Stagnation Advisory
This National Weather Service product is issued when major buildups of air pollution, smoke, dust, or industrial gases are expected near the ground for a period of time. This usually results from a stagnant high pressure system with weak winds being unable to bring in fresh air.
Air Transportable Mobile Unit
A modularized transportable unit containing communications and observational equipment necessary to support a meteorologist preparing on-site forecasts at a wildfire or other incident.
Airborne Snow Survey Program
In hydrologic terms, Center (NOHRSC) program that makes airborne snow water equivalent and soil moisture measurements over large areas of the country that are subject to severe and chronic snowmelt flooding.
Alaska Current
A North Pacific Ocean current flowing counterclockwise in the Gulf of Alaska. It is the northward flowing (warm) division of the Aleutian Current
Alert Stage
The stage which, when reached by a rising stream, represents the level where appropriate officials (e.g., county sheriff, civil defense officials, or bypass gate operators) are notified of the threat of possible flooding. (Used if different from action stage, and at the discretion of the WFO or river forecast center [RFC].) The term "alert stage" is to be used instead of warning stage. Monitor stage or caution stage may be used instead of alert stage in some parts of the country.
ALIASING
The process by which frequencies too high to be analyzed with the given sampling interval appear at a frequency less than the Nyquist frequency.
Along-slope Wind System
A closed, thermally driven diurnal mountain wind circulation whose lower branch blows up or down the sloping sidewalls of a valley or mountain. The upper branch blows in the opposite direction, thereby closing the circulation.
ALQDS
All Quadrants
Altimeter Setting
A correction of the station pressure to sea level used by aviation. This correction takes into account the standard variation of pressure with height and the influence of temperature variation with height on the pressure. The temperatures used correspond to the standard atmosphere temperatures between the surface and sea level.
Altocumulus
A cloud of a class characterized by globular masses or rolls in layers or patches, the individual elements being larger and darker than those of cirrocumulus and smaller than those of stratocumulus. These clouds are of medium altitude, about 8000-20,000 ft (2400-6100 m).
Altostratus
A cloud of a class characterized by a generally uniform gray sheet or layer, lighter in color than nimbostratus and darker than cirrostratus. These clouds are of medium altitude, about 8000 to 20,000 ft (2400-6100 m).
AMOS
Automatic Meteorological Observing System
AMS
1. Air Mass - a body of air covering a relatively wide area and exhibiting horizontally uniform properties.

2. American Meteorological Society
AMVER/SEAS
A software program created by the National Weather Service intended to efficiently generate AMVER and VOS reports as part of a cooperative effort.
Analog Signal
A signal, such as voice, that varies in a continuous manner.
ANBURS
Alphanumeric Backup Replacement System
Angels
Radar echoes caused by birds, insects, and localized refractive index discontinuities.
Angstrom
A unit of length equal to 10-8 cm.
ANOMALOUS PROPAGATION (AP)
Non-standard atmospheric temperature or moisture gradients will cause all or part of the radar beam to propagate along a non-normal path. When non-standard index-of-refraction distributions prevail, "abnormal" or "anomalous" propagation occurs. When abnormal downward bending occurs, it is called "superrefraction." If the beam is refracted downward sufficiently, it will illuminate the ground and return signals to the radar from distances further than is normally associated with ground targets. The term "subrefraction" is applied when there is abnormal upward bending of the radar beam.
Anthropogenic Source
A pollutant source caused or produced by humans.
Anticyclogenesis
The formation or intensification of an anticyclone or high pressure center.
Antilles Current
A current which originates in the vicinity of the Leeward Islands as part of the Atlantic North Equatorial Current.
Anvil Zits
Slang for frequent (often continuous or nearly continuous), localized lightning discharges occurring from within a thunderstorm anvil.
APST
Aviation Products and Services Team
Arch Filament System (AFS)
In solar-terrestrial terms, a bright, compact plage crossed by a system of small, arched filaments, which is often a sign of rapid or continued growth in an Active Region.
Arctic Oscillation
(abbrev. AO)- The Arctic Oscillation is a pattern in which atmospheric pressure at polar and middle latitudes fluctuates between negative and positive phases. The negative phase brings higher-than-normal pressure over the polar region and lower-than-normal pressure at about 45 degrees north latitude. The negative phase allows cold air to plunge into the Midwestern United States and western Europe, and storms bring rain to the Mediterranean. The positive phase brings the opposite conditions, steering ocean storms farther north and bringing wetter weather to Alaska, Scotland and Scandinavia and drier conditions to areas such as California, Spain and the Middle East. In recent years research has shown, the Arctic Oscillation has been mostly in its positive phase. Some researchers argue that the North Atlantic Oscillation is in fact part of the AO.
Arctic Sea Smoke
Steam fog, but often specifically applied to steam fog rising from small open water within sea ice.
Arcus
A low, horizontal cloud formation associated with the leading edge of thunderstorm outflow (i.e., the gust front). Roll clouds and shelf clouds both are types of arcus clouds.
Area Forecast Discussion
This National Weather Service product is intended to provide a well-reasoned discussion of the meteorological thinking which went into the preparation of the Zone Forecast Product. The forecaster will try to focus on the most particular challenges of the forecast. The text will be written in plain language or in proper contractions. At the end of the discussion, there will be a list of all advisories, non-convective watches, and non-convective warnings. The term non-convective refers to weather that is not caused by thunderstorms. An intermediate Area Forecast Discussion will be issued when either significant forecast updates are being made or if interesting weather is expected to occur.
Area Hydrologic Discussion (AHD)
A short range, episodic, discussion and graphic which highlights locations across the nation that may be impacted by rapid-onset flooding, using National Water Model and other guidance.
Area Source
An array of pollutant sources, so widely dispersed and uniform in strength that they can be treated in a dispersion model as an aggregate pollutant release from a defined area at a uniform rate. Compare line source and point source.
Area Wide Hydrologic Prediction System
(Abbrev. AWHPS) - A computer system which automatically ingests areal flash flood guidance values and WSR-88D products and displays this data and other hydrologic information on a map background.
ARSI
Atmospheric Research System, Inc.
Artesian Well
In hydrologic terms, a well drilled into a confined aquifer with enough hydraulic pressure for the water to flow to the surface without pumping. Also called a flowing well.
AS
(NOTE: if this appears in an Area Forecast Discussion or other text product in context as the word "as," disregard the technical definition below).

Abbreviation for Altostratus, a cloud of a class characterized by a generally uniform gray sheet or layer, lighter in color than nimbostratus and darker than cirrostratus. These clouds are of medium altitude, about 8000 to 20,000 ft (2400-6100 m).
ASAP
1. AHOS SHEF Automatic Processing System

2. As soon as possible (may be used in Area Forecast Discussions)
ASAPTRAN
The software component of ASAP.
ASB
Aviation Support Branch
Ashfall Advisory
An advisory issued for conditions associated with airborne ash plume resulting in ongoing deposition at the surface. Ashfall may originate directly from a volcanic eruption, or indirectly by wind suspending the ash.
ASL
Above Sea Level
ASOS
Automated Surface Observing System. A list of stations currently active and available through the NWS website can be found here.
ASOS IDs
Each Automated Surface Observing System an a four character identifier assigned to it. A list of stations currently active and available through the NWS website can be found here.
ASR-9
Airport Surveillance Radar (FAA)
ASSOCIATED PRINCIPAL USER
A Principal User with dedicated communications to a WSR-88D unit.
Astronomical Dawn
The time at which the sun is 18 degrees below the horizon in the morning. Astronomical dawn is that point in time at which the sun starts lightening the sky. Prior to this time during the morning, the sky is completely dark.
Astronomical Dusk
This is the time at which the sun is 18 degrees below the horizon in the evening. At this time the sun no longer illuminates the sky.
Astronomical Unit
(abbrev. AU)- The mean earth-sun distance, equal to 1.496x1013 cm, or 214.94 solar radii.
ATDTDCS
Automated Tone Dial Telephone Data Collection System - Data collection system where cooperative observers collect precipitation, stage, and temperature data then transmit the data to the NWS ATDTDCS computer through the telephone lines. The ATDTDCS computer transmits the data to AFOS.
Atmosphere
The air surrounding and bound to the Earth.
Atmospheric Boundary Layer
Same as Boundary Layer - in general, a layer of air adjacent to a bounding surface. Specifically, the term most often refers to the planetary boundary layer, which is the layer within which the effects of friction are significant. For the earth, this layer is considered to be roughly the lowest one or two kilometers of the atmosphere. It is within this layer that temperatures are most strongly affected by daytime insolation and nighttime radiational cooling, and winds are affected by friction with the earth's surface. The effects of friction die out gradually with height, so the "top" of this layer cannot be defined exactly.
Atmospheric Circulation Model
A mathematical model for quantitatively describing, simulating, and analyzing the structure of the circulation in the atmosphere and the underlying causes. Sometimes referred to as Atmospheric General Circulation Models or AGCMs.
Atmospheric Pressure
The pressure exerted by the earth's atmosphere at any given point, determined by taking the product of the gravitational acceleration at the point and the mass of the unit area column of air above the point.
Atmospheric Radiation
Infrared radiation (energy in the wavelength interval of 3- 80 micrometer) emitted by or being propagated through the atmosphere. It consists of both upwelling and downwelling components. Compare with terrestrial radiation.
Aurora Australis
Same as Aurora Borealis, but in the Southern Hemisphere. Also known as the southern lights; the luminous, radiant emission from the upper atmosphere over middle and high latitudes, and centred around the earth's magnetic poles. These silent fireworks are often seen on clear winter nights in a variety of shapes and colors.
Aurora Borealis
Also known as the northern lights; the luminous, radiant emission from the upper atmosphere over middle and high latitudes, and centred around the earth's magnetic poles. These silent fireworks are often seen on clear winter nights in a variety of shapes and colors.
Automated Surface Observing System
The ASOS program is a joint effort of the National Weather Service (NWS), the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), and the Department of Defense (DOD). Completed in the mid-1990s, the ASOS systems serve as the nation's primary surface weather observing network. ASOS is designed to support weather forecast activities and aviation operations and, at the same time, support the needs of the meteorological, hydrological, and climatological research communities.
Avalanche Advisory
A preliminary notification that conditions may be favorable for the development of avalanches in mountain regions.
AWHPS
Area Wide Hydrologic Prediction System
AWIPS
Advanced Weather Interactive Processing System. This system replaced the Automation of Field Operations and Services (AFOS). This system allows the operator to overlay meteorological data from a variety of sources.
AWOS
Automated Weather Observation System
Azores Current
One of the currents of the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.
Azores High
Alternate term for Bermuda High - a semi-permanent, subtropical area of high pressure in the North Atlantic Ocean off the East Coast of North America that migrates east and west with varying central pressure. Depending on the season, it has different names. When it is displaced westward, during the Northern Hemispheric summer and fall, the center is located in the western North Atlantic, near Bermuda. In the winter and early spring, it is primarily centered near the Azores in the eastern part of the North Atlantic. Also known as Azores High.
Back-building Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm in which new development takes place on the upwind side (usually the west or southwest side), such that the storm seems to remain stationary or propagate in a backward direction.
Back-sheared Anvil
[Slang], a thunderstorm anvil which spreads upwind, against the flow aloft. A back-sheared anvil often implies a very strong updraft and a high severe weather potential.
Backing Winds
Winds which shift in a counterclockwise direction with time at a given location (e.g. from southerly to southeasterly), or change direction in a counterclockwise sense with height (e.g. westerly at the surface but becoming more southerly aloft). The opposite of veering winds.

In storm spotting, a backing wind usually refers to the turning of a south or southwest surface wind with time to a more east or southeasterly direction. Backing of the surface wind can increase the potential for tornado development by increasing the directional shear at low levels.
Backscatter
The portion of power scattered back in the incident direction.
Backsight
In hydrologic terms, a rod reading taken on a point of known elevation, a benchmark or a turning point. Backsights are added to the known elevation to arrive at the height of the instrument. With a known height of the instrument, the telescope can be used to determine the elevation of other points in the vicinity.
BANDPASS FILTER
A filter whose frequencies are between given upper and lower cutoff values, while substantially attenuating all frequencies outside these values (this band).
Bank Storage
In hydrologic terms, water absorbed and stored in the void in the soil cover in the bed and banks of a stream, lake, or reservoir, and returned in whole or in part as the level of water body surface falls.
Bankfull Stage
An established gage height at a given location along a river or stream, above which a rise in water surface will cause the river or stream to overflow the lowest natural stream bank somewhere in the corresponding reach. The term "lowest bank" is however, not intended to apply to an unusually low place or a break in the natural bank through which the water inundates a small area. Bankfull stage is not necessarily the same as flood stage.
BAPSU
Bay Area Public Service Unit. Public Service section of the San Francisco Bay Area Weather Service Forecast Office.
Baroclinic leaf shield
A cloud pattern on satellite images - frequently noted in advance of formation of a low pressure center.
Barometric Pressure
The pressure of the atmosphere as indicated by a barometer.
Barotropic System
A weather system in which temperature and pressure surfaces are coincident, i.e., temperature is uniform (no temperature gradient) on a constant pressure surface. Barotropic systems are characterized by a lack of wind shear, and thus are generally unfavorable areas for severe thunderstorm development. See baroclinic zone.

Usually, in operational meteorology, references to barotropic systems refer to equivalent barotropic systems - systems in which temperature gradients exist, but are parallel to height gradients on a constant pressure surface. In such systems, height contours and isotherms are parallel everywhere, and winds do not change direction with height.

As a rule, a true equivalent barotropic system can never be achieved in the real atmosphere. While some systems (such as closed lows or cutoff lows) may reach a state that is close to equivalent barotropic, the term barotropic system usually is used in a relative sense to describe systems that are really only close to being equivalent barotropic, i.e., isotherms and height contours are nearly parallel everywhere and directional wind shear is weak.
Bartel's Rotation Number
The serial number assigned to 27-day rotation periods of solar and geophysical parameters. Rotation 1 in this sequence was assigned arbitrarily by Bartel to begin in January 1833.
BASE DATA
Those digital fields of reflectivity, mean radial velocity, and spectrum width data in spherical coordinates provided at the finest resolution available from the radar.
Base Flood
In hydrologic terms, the national standard for floodplain management is the base, or one percent chance flood. This flood has at least one chance in 100 of occurring in any given year. It is also called a 100 year flood.
BASE PRODUCTS
Those products that present some representation of the base data. This representation may not necessarily be either in full resolution or depict the full area of coverage. Base products can be used to generate a graphic display or further processing.
Base Reflectivity
Base Reflectivity is the default image. Taken from the lowest (½° elevation) slice, it is the primary image used to "see what's out there". There are two versions of Base Reflectivity image; the short range version which extends out to 124 nautical miles (143 statute miles/230 kilometers) and the long range version which extends out to 248 nautical miles (285 statute miles/460 kilometers). This image is available upon completion of the ½° elevation scan during each volume scan
Base Station
In hydrologic terms, a computer which accepts radio signals from ALERT gaging sites, decodes the data, places the data in a database, and makes the data available to other users.
Base Width
In hydrologic terms, the time duration of a unit hydrograph.
Baseflow
In hydrologic terms, streamflow which results from precipitation that infiltrates into the soil and eventually moves through the soil to the stream channel. This is also referred to as ground water flow, or dry-weather flow.
Basin
An area having a common outlet for its surface runoff. Also called a "Drainage Basin."
Basin Boundary
The topographic dividing line around the perimeter of a basin, beyond which overland flow (i.e.; runoff) drains away into another basin.
Basin Lag
In hydrologic terms, the time it takes from the centroid of rainfall for the hydrograph to peak.
Basin Recharge
In hydrologic terms, rainfall that adds to the residual moisture of the basin in order to help recharge the water deficit. i.e; water absorbed into the soil that does not take the form of direct runoff.
Beach Erosion
The movement of beach materials by some combination of high waves, currents and tides, or wind.
Bear's Cage
[Slang], a region of storm-scale rotation, in a thunderstorm, which is wrapped in heavy precipitation. This area often coincides with a radar hook echo and/or mesocyclone, especially one associated with an HP storm. The term reflects the danger involved in observing such an area visually, which must be done at close range in low visibility.
Beaufort Scale
The Beaufort wind scale is a system used to estimate and report wind speeds when no measuring apparatus is available. It was invented in the early 19th Century by Admiral Sir Francis Beaufort of the British Navy as a way to interpret winds from conditions at sea. Since that time, the scale has been modernized for effects on land.

    Beaufort Force 0 - Wind less than 1 kt, Calm, Sea surface smooth and mirror-like. Smoke rises vertically.

    Beaufort Force 1 - Wind 1-3 kt, Light Air, Scaly ripples, no foam crests. Smoke drift indicates wind direction, still wind vanes.

    Beaufort Force 2 - Wind 4-6 kt, Light Breeze, Small wavelets, crests glassy, no breaking waves. Wind felt on face, leaves rustle, vanes begin to move.

    Beaufort Force 3 - Wind 7-10 kt, Gentle Breeze, Large wavelets, crests begin to break, scattered whitecaps. Leaves and small twigs constantly moving, light flags extended.

    Beaufort Force 4 - Winds 11-16 kt, Moderate Breeze, Small waves 1 -4 ft. becoming longer, numerous whitecaps. Dust, leaves, and loose paper lifted, small tree branches move.

    Beaufort Force 5 - Winds 17-21 kt, Fresh Breeze, Moderate waves 4 -8 ft taking longer form, many whitecaps, some spray. Small trees in leaf begin to sway.

    Beaufort Force 6 - Winds 22-27 kt, Strong Breeze, Larger waves 8 -13 ft, whitecaps common, more spray. Larger tree branches moving, whistling in wires.

    Beaufort Force 7 - Winds 28-33 kt, Near Gale, Sea heaps up, waves 13 -20 ft, white foam streaks off breakers. Whole trees moving, resistance felt walking against wind.

    Beaufort Force 8 - Winds 34-40 kt Gale, Moderately high (13 -20 ft) waves of greater length, edges of crests begin to break into spindrift, foam blown in streaks. Whole trees in motion, resistance felt walking against wind.

    Beaufort Force 9 - Winds 41-47 kt, Strong Gale, High waves (20 ft), sea begins to roll, dense streaks of foam, spray may reduce visibility. Slight structural damage occurs, slate blows off roofs.

    Beaufort Force 10 - Winds 48-55 kt, Storm, Very high waves (20 -30 ft) with overhanging crests, sea white densely blown foam, heavy rolling, lowered visibility. Seldom experienced on land, trees broken or uprooted, "considerable structural damage".

    Beaufort Force 11 - Winds 56-63 kt, Violent Storm, Exceptionally high (30 -45 ft) waves, foam patches cover sea, visibility more reduced.

    Beaufort Force 12 -Winds 64+ kt, Hurricane, Air filled with foam, waves over 45 ft, sea completely white with driving spray, visibility greatly reduced.

Beaver('s) Tail
[Slang], a particular type of inflow band with a relatively broad, flat appearance suggestive of a beaver's tail. It is attached to a supercell's general updraft and is oriented roughly parallel to the pseudo-warm front, i.e., usually east to west or southeast to northwest. As with any inflow band, cloud elements move toward the updraft, i.e., toward the west or northwest. Its size and shape change as the strength of the inflow changes. See also inflow stinger.
Bergeron Process
The process by which ice crystals in a cloud grow at the expense of supercooled liquid water droplets.
Best Track
A subjectively-smoothed representation of a tropical cyclone's location and intensity over its lifetime. The best track contains the cyclone's latitude, longitude, maximum sustained surface winds, and minimum sea-level pressure at 6-hourly intervals. Best track positions and intensities, which are based on a post-storm assessment of all available data, may differ from values contained in storm advisories. They also generally will not reflect the erratic motion implied by connecting individual center fix positions.
BIAS
A systematic difference between an estimate of and the true value of a parameter.
Blowing Dust or Sand
Strong winds over dry ground, that has little or no vegetation, can lift particles of dust or sand into the air. These airborne particles can reduce visibility, cause respiratory problems, and have an abrasive affect on machinery. A concentration reducing the visibility to ¼ mile or less often poses hazards for travelers.
Blowing Snow
Blowing snow is wind-driven snow that reduces surface visibility. Blowing snow can be falling snow or snow that has already accumulated but is picked up and blown by strong winds. Blowing snow is usually accompanied by drifting snow.
Blowing Snow Advisory
Issued when wind driven snow reduces surface visibility, possibly, hampering traveling. Blowing snow may be falling snow, or snow that has already accumulated but is picked up and blown by strong winds.
Blustery
Same as Breezy; 15 to 25 mph winds.
Brackish Ice
In hydrologic terms, ice formed from brackish water.
Braided Stream
In hydrologic terms, characterized by successive division and rejoining of streamflow with accompanying islands. A braided stream is composed of anabranches.
Brash Ice
In hydrologic terms, accumulation of floating ice made up of fragments not more than 2 meters across; the wreckage of other forms of ice.
Breakers
Waves that break, displaying white water. Depends on wave steepness and bottom bathymetry.
Bright Surge on the Disk (BSD)
In solar-terrestrial terms, a bright gaseous stream (surge) emanating from the chromosphere.
Bright Surge on the Limb (BSL)
In solar-terrestrial terms, a large gaseous stream (surge) that moves outward more than 0.15 solar radius above the limb.
Brightness
A basic visual sensation describing the amount of light that appears to emanate from an object, or more precisely, the luminance of an object
Brisk
15 to 25 mph winds
Brisk Wind Advisory
A Small Craft Advisory issued by the National Weather Service for ice-covered waters.
Brocken Specter
An optical phenomenon sometimes occurring at high altitudes when the image of an observer placed between the sun and a cloud is projected on the cloud as a greatly magnified shadow. The shadow's head is surrounded by rings of color, called a glory.
BS
Blowing Snow
Bulk Richardson Number
A non-dimensional (i.e., no units) number relating vertical stability to vertical shear (generally, stability divided by shear). High values indicate unstable and/or weakly-sheared environments; low values indicate weak instability and/or strong vertical shear. Generally, values in the range of around 50 to 100 suggest environmental conditions favorable for supercell development.
Burst
In solar-terrestrial terms, a transient enhancement of the solar radio emission, usually associated with an active region or flare.
Bust
Slang for an inaccurate forecast, especially one where significant weather (e.g., heavy snowfall) is predicted but does not occur.
Buttress Dam
Buttress dams are comprised of reinforced masonry or stonework built against concrete. They are usually in the form of flat decks or multiple arches. They require about 60 percent less concrete than gravity dams, but the increased form work and reinforcement steel required usually offset the savings in concrete. Many were built in the 1930's when the ratio of labor cost to materials was comparatively low. However, this type of construction is not competitive with other types of dams when labor costs are high.
C AMS
Continental Air Mass
CADAS
Centralized Automated Data Acquisition System - a system of two minicomputers in NWSH.
Capillary Waves
Waves caused by the initial wind stress on the water surface causes what are known as capillary waves. These have a wavelength of less than 1.73 cm, and the force that tries to restore them to equilibrium is the cohesion of the individual molecules. Capillary waves are important in starting the process of energy transfer from the air to the water.
Capping Inversion
Alternate term for Cap; a layer of relatively warm air aloft, usually several thousand feet above the ground, which suppresses or delays the development of thunderstorms. Air parcels rising into this layer become cooler than the surrounding air, which inhibits their ability to rise further and produce thunderstorms. As such, the cap often prevents or delays thunderstorm development even in the presence of extreme instability. However, if the cap is removed or weakened, then explosive thunderstorm development can occur.

The cap is an important ingredient in most severe thunderstorm episodes, as it serves to separate warm, moist air below and cooler, drier air above. With the cap in place, air below it can continue to warm and/or moisten, thus increasing the amount of potential instability. Or, air above it can cool, which also increases potential instability. But without a cap, either process (warming/moistening at low levels or cooling aloft) results in a faster release of available instability - often before instability levels become large enough to support severe weather development.
CAPS
Center for Analysis and Prediction of Storms
Caution Stage
The stage which, when reached by a rising stream, represents the level where appropriate officials (e.g., county sheriff, civil defense officials, or bypass gate operators) are notified of the threat of possible flooding. Alert stage or caution stage are used instead of caution stage in some parts of the country.
Celsius
The standard scale used to measure temperature in most areas outside the United States. On this scale, the freezing point of water is 0°F and the boiling point is 100°F. To convert a Fahrenheit temperature to Celsius, subtract 32 from it and then multiply by 5/9:

°C = (°F - 32) * 5/9
Centimeter Burst
A solar radio burst in the centimeter wavelength range.
Central Meridian Passage (CMP)
In solar-terrestrial terms, the passage of an Active Region or other feature across the longitude meridian that passes through the apparent center of the solar disk.
CFS
In hydrologic terms, Cubic Feet per Second - the flow rate or discharge equal to one cubic foot (of water, usually) per second. This rate is equivalent to approximately 7.48 gallons per second. This is also referred to as a second-foot.
Cfs-Day
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water discharged in twenty four hours, with a flow of one cubic foot per second is widely used; 1 cfs-day is 24 x 60 x 60 = 86,400 cubic feet, 1.983474 acre-feet, or 646,317 gallons. The average flow in cubic feet per second for any time period is the volume of flow in cfs-days.
Channeled High Winds
In mountainous areas or in cities with tall buildings, air may be channeled through constricted passages producing high winds. Santa Ana winds and winds through passes from the cold Alaskan interior to the sea are examples of these winds. Channeled high winds are local in nature but can be extremely strong. These winds generally occur in well-defined areas.
Chemistry Model
A computer model used in air pollution investigations that simulates chemical and photochemical reactions of the pollutants during their transport and diffusion.
CHGS
changes
Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) - Manufactured substances used as coolants and computer-chip cleaners. When these products break down they destroy stratospheric ozone, creating the Antarctic Ozone Hole in the Southern Hemisphere spring (Northern Hemisphere autumn). While no longer in use, their long lifetime will lead to a very slow removal from the atmosphere.
Chromosphere
In solar-terrestrial terms, the layer of the solar atmosphere above the photosphere and beneath the transition region and the corona.
Chromospheric Events
In solar-terrestrial terms, flares that are just Chromospheric Events without Centimetric Bursts or Ionospheric Effects. (SID) (Class C flare)
Cirrocumulus
A cirriform cloud characterized by thin, white patches, each of which is composed of very small granules or ripples. These clouds are of high altitude (20,000-40,000 ft or 6000 -12,000 m).
Cirrostratus
A cloud of a class characterized by a composition of ice crystals and often by the production of halo phenomena and appearing as a whitish and usually somewhat fibrous veil, often covering the whole sky and sometimes so thin as to be hardly discernible. These clouds are of high altitude (20,000-40,000 ft or 6000 -12,000 m).
Cirrus
(abbrev. CI) High-level clouds (16,000 feet or higher), composed of ice crystals and appearing in the form of white, delicate filaments or white or mostly white patches or narrow bands. Cirrus clouds typically have a fibrous or hairlike appearance, and often are semi-transparent. Thunderstorm anvils are a form of cirrus cloud, but most cirrus clouds are not associated with thunderstorms.
Civil Dusk
The time at which the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon in the evening. At this time objects are distinguishable but there is no longer enough light to perform any outdoor activities.
Civil Emergency Message
(Abbrev. CEM) - A message issued by the National Weather Service in coordination with Federal, state or local government to warn the general public of a non-weather related time-critical emergency which threatens life or property, e.g. nuclear accident, toxic chemical spill, etc.
Class I Areas
Geographic areas designated by the Clean Air Act where only a small amount or increment of air quality deterioration is permissible.
Clear Slot
With respect to severe thunderstorms, a local region of clearing skies or reduced cloud cover, indicating an intrusion of drier air; often seen as a bright area with higher cloud bases on the west or southwest side of a wall cloud. A clear slot is believed to be a visual indication of a rear flank downdraft.
Climate Diagnostics Bulletin
(CDB) - The monthly CPC Bulletin reports on the previous months' status of the ocean-atmosphere climate system and provides various seasonal ENSO-related outlooks. It is issued by the fifteenth of the month.
Climate Diagnostics Center
(CDC) - The mission of NOAA's Climate Diagnostics Center is to identify the nature and causes for climate variations on time scales ranging from a month to centuries.
Climate System
The system consisting of the atmosphere (gases), hydrosphere (water), lithosphere (solid rocky part of the Earth), and biosphere (living) that determine the Earth's climate.
Closed Basin
A basin draining to some depression or pond within its area, from which water is lost only by evaporation or percolation. A basin without a surface outlet for precipitation falling precipitation.
Closed Basin Lake Flooding
Flooding that occurs on lakes with either no outlet or a relatively small one. Seasonal increases in rainfall cause the lake level to rise faster than it can drain. The water may stay at flood stage for weeks, months, or years.
Closed Low
A low pressure area with a distinct center of cyclonic circulation which can be completely encircled by one or more isobars or height contour lines. The term usually is used to distinguish a low pressure area aloft from a low-pressure trough. Closed lows aloft typically are partially or completely detached from the main westerly current, and thus move relatively slowly (see Cutoff Low).
Cloud Condensation Nuclei
Small particles in the air on which water vapor condenses and forms cloud droplets.
Cloud Streets
Rows of cumulus or cumulus-type clouds aligned parallel to the low-level flow. Cloud streets sometimes can be seen from the ground, but are seen best on satellite photographs.
Cloud Tags
Ragged, detached cloud fragments; fractus or scud.
Coalescence
The process by which water droplets in a cloud collide and come together to form raindrops.
Coastal Flooding
Flooding which occurs when water is driven onto land from an adjacent body of water. This generally occurs when there are significant storms, such as tropical and extratropical cyclones.
Coastal Waters
Includes the area from a line approximating the mean high water along the mainland or island as far out as 100 nautical miles including the bays, harbors and sounds.
Coastal Waters Forecast (CWF)
The marine forecast for areas, including bays, harbors, and sounds, from a line approximating the mean high water mark (average height of high water over a 19-year period) along the mainland or near shore islands extending out to as much as 100 NM.
Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Advisory
Minor flooding is possible (i.e., over and above normal high tide levels. Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Advisories are issued using the Coastal/Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Warning
Flooding that will pose a serious threat to life and property is occurring, imminent or highly likely. Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Warnings are issued using the Coastal/Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Watch
Flooding with significant impacts is possible. Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Watches are issued using the Coastal/Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
Coastal/Lakeshore Flooding
(i) (Oceanic) Coastal Flooding is the inundation of land areas caused by sea waters over and above normal tidal action. This flooding may impact the immediate oceanfront, gulfs, bays, back bays, sounds, and tidal portions of river mouths and inland tidal waterways. (ii) Lakeshore Flooding is the inundation of land areas adjacent to one of the Great Lakes caused by lake water exceeding normal levels. Lakeshore flooding impacts the immediate lakefront, bays, and the interfaces of lakes and connecting waterways, such as rivers.
Cold Occlusion
A frontal zone formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front and, being colder than the air ahead of the warm front, slides under the warm front, lifting it aloft. Compare with warm occlusion.
Combined Seas
Generally referred to as SEAS. Used to describe the combination or interaction of wind waves and swells in which the separate components are not distinguished. This includes the case when swell is negligible or is not considered in describing sea state. Specifically, Seas2 = S2+W2 where S is the height of all swell components and W is the height of the wind wave components. When used, SEAS should be considered as being the same as the significant wave height.
Complex Gale/Storm
In the high seas and offshore forecasts, an area for which gale/storm force winds are forecast or are occurring but for which no single center is the principal generator of these winds.
Composite
An average that is calculated according to specific criteria. For example, one might want a composite for the rainfall at a given location for all years where the temperature was much above average.
Composite Hydrograph
A stream discharge hydrograph which includes base flow, or one which corresponds to a net rain storm of duration longer than one unit period.
Comprehensive Flare Index (CFI)
In solar-terrestrial terms, the indicative of solar flare importance.
Concentric Rings
These are common in the most intense hurricanes. They usually mark the end the period of intensification. These hurricanes then maintain quasi-constant intensity or weaken. When the inner eye is completely dissipated, more intensification may occur.
Condensation
In general, the physical process by which a vapor becomes a liquid or solid; the opposite of evaporation, although on the molecular scale, both processes are always occurring.
Condensation Funnel
A funnel-shaped cloud associated with rotation and consisting of condensed water droplets (as opposed to smoke, dust, debris, etc.).
Conditionally Unstable Air
An atmospheric condition that exists when the environmental lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate but greater than the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
Cone of Depression
In hydrologic terms, the depression, roughly conical in shape, produced in a water table, or other piezometric surface, by the extraction of water from a well at a given rate. The volume of the cone will vary with the rate of withdrawal of water. Also called the Cone of Influence.
Congestus
(or Cumulus Congestus) - same as towering cumulus.
Congressional Organic Act of 1890
The act that assigned the responsibility of river and floor forecasting for the benefit of the general welfare of the Nation’s people and economy to the Weather Bureau, and subsequently the National Weather Service.
Conjugate Points
Two points on the earth's surface, at opposite ends of a geomagnetic field line
Conservation Storage
In hydrologic terms, storage of water for later release for usual purposes such as municipal water supply, power, or irrigation in contrast with storage capacity used for flood control.
Consolidated Ice Cover
In hydrologic terms, ice cover formed by the packing and freezing together of floes, brash ice and other forms of floating ice.
Constant Pressure Chart
Alternate term for Isobaric Chart; a weather map representing conditions on a surface of equal atmospheric pressure. For example, a 500 mb chart will display conditions at the level of the atmosphere at which the atmospheric pressure is 500 mb. The height above sea level at which the pressure is that particular value may vary from one location to another at any given time, and also varies with time at any one location, so it does not represent a surface of constant altitude/height (i.e., the 500 mb level may be at a different height above sea level over Dallas than over New York at a given time, and may also be at a different height over Dallas from one day to the next).
Contents
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water in a reservoir. Unless otherwise indicated reservoir content is computed on the basis of a level pool and does not include bank storage.
Continental Air Mass
A dry air mass originating over a large land area. Contrast with tropical air mass.
Continental Shelf
The zone bordering a continent and extending to a depth, usually around 100 FM, from which there is a steep descent toward greater depth.
Continuum Storm (CTM)
In solar-terrestrial terms, general term for solar noise lasting for hours and sometimes days.
Control Points
In hydrologic terms, small monuments securely embedded in the surface of the dam. Any movement of the monument indicates a movement in the dam itself. Movements in the dam are detected by comparing control points location to location of fixed monuments located off the dam using accurate survey techniques.
CONTS
continues
CONUS
Continental United States
Convective Clouds
The vertically developed family of clouds are cumulus and cumulonimbus. The height of their bases range from as low as 1,000 feet to a bit more than 10,000 feet. Clouds with extensive vertical development are positive indications of unstable air. Strong upward currents in vertically developed clouds can carry high concentrations of supercooled water to high levels where temperatures are quite cold. Upper portions of these clouds may be composed of water and ice.
Convective Condensation Level
(abbrev. CCL)- The level in the atmosphere to which an air parcel, if heated from below, will rise dry adiabatically, without becoming colder than its environment just before the parcel becomes saturated. See Lifted Condensation Level (LCL).
Conveyance Loss
In hydrologic terms, the loss of water from a conduit due to leakage, seepage, evaporation, or evapo-transpiration.
Cooling Degree Days
(Abbrev. CDD) - A form of Degree Day used to estimate energy requirements for air conditioning or refrigeration. Typically, cooling degree days are calculated as how much warmer the mean temperature at a location is than 65°F on a given day. For example, if a location experiences a mean temperature of 75°F on a certain day, there were 10 CDD (Cooling Degree Days) that day because 75 - 65 = 10.
Cooperative Observer
An individual (or institution) who takes precipitation and temperature observations-and in some cases other observations such as river stage, soil temperature, and evaporation-at or near their home, or place of business. Many observers transmit their reports by touch-tone telephone to an NWS computer, and nearly all observers mail monthly reports to the National Climatic Data Center to be archived and published.
Coordinated Universal Time (UTC)
By international agreement, the local time at the prime meridian, which passes through Greenwich, England. Prior to 1972, this time was called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) but is now referred to as Coordinated Universal Time or Universal Time Coordinated (UTC). It is a coordinated time scale, maintained by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM). It is also known a "Z time" or "Zulu Time".

More about UTC, and a table to convert UTC to your local time is posted at: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/jetstream/remote/radarfaq.htm#utc
Coriolis Force
A fictitious force used to account for the apparent deflection of a body in motion with respect to the earth, as seen by an observer on the earth. The deflection (to the right in the Northern Hemisphere) is caused by the rotation of the earth.
Corn Snow Ice
In hydrologic terms, rotten granular ice.
Corner Effects
A small-scale convergence effect that can be quite severe. It occurs around steep islands and headlands.
Coronal Transients
In solar-terrestrial terms, a general term for short-time-scale changes in the corona, but principally used to describe outward-moving plasma clouds.
Correlated Shear
An output of the mesocyclone detection algorithm indicating a 3-dimensional shear region (i.e. vertically correlated) that is not symmetrical.
Cosmic Ray
An extremely energetic (relativistic) charged particle.
County Warning and Forecast Area
The group of counties for which a National Weather Service Forecast Office is responsible for issuing warnings and weather forecasts.
Coupled Atmosphere-Ocean Model
Same as Coupled Model; in the context of climate modeling this usually refers to a numerical model which simulates both atmospheric and oceanic motions and temperatures and which takes into account the effects of each component on the other.
Crepuscular Rays
The alternating bands of light and dark (rays and shadows) seen at the earth's surface when the sun shines through clouds.
Crest
Highest point in a wave.

In hydrologic terms, (1) The highest stage or level of a flood wave as it passes a point. (2) The top of a dam, dike, spillway, or weir, to which water must rise before passing over the structure.
Crest Gage
A gage used to obtain a record of flood crests at sites where recording gages are installed.
Crest Width
In hydrologic terms, the thickness or width of a dam at the level of the crest (top) of the dam. The term "thickness" is used for gravity and arch dams and "width" for other types of dams.
Crop Moisture Index
In 1968, Palmer developed the index to assess short-term crop water conditions and needs across major crop-producing regions. This index is a useful tool in forecasting short-term drought conditions.
Cross-Valley Wind System
A thermally driven wind that blows during daytime across the axis of a valley toward the heated sidewall.
CRS
Console Replacement System for NOAA Weather Radio
CSDRBL
Considerable
CSI
Conditional Symmetric Instability
CST
Central Standard Time
CSTL
coastal
Cubic Feet per Second
(Abbrev. CFP) - In hydrologic terms, a unit expressing rates of discharge. One cubic foot per second is equal to the discharge through a rectangular cross section, 1 foot wide by 1 foot deep, flowing at an average velocity of 1 foot per second. It is also approximately 7.48 gallons per second.
Cumulus
(Abbrev. CU) - detached clouds, generally dense and with sharp outlines, showing vertical development in the form of domes, mounds, or towers. Tops normally are rounded while bases are more horizontal. See Cb, towering cumulus.
Cumulus Buildups
Clouds which develop vertically due to unstable air. Characterized by their cauliflower-like or tower-like appearance of moderately large size
Cumulus Congestus
A large, towering cumulus cloud with great vertical development, usually with a cauliflower-like appearance, but lacking the characteristic anvil of a cumulonimbus.
Cyclic Storm
A thunderstorm that undergoes cycles of intensification and weakening (pulses) while maintaining its individuality. Cyclic supercells are capable of producing multiple tornadoes (i.e., a tornado family) and/or several bursts of severe weather.
Cyclogenesis
(Abbrev. CYCLGN) - The formation or intensification of a cyclone or low-pressure storm system.
Dark Surge on Disk (DSD)
In solar-terrestrial terms, dark gaseous ejections visible in H-alpha.
DDS
Data Distribution System.
Dead Storage
In hydrologic terms, the volume in a reservoir below the lowest controllable level.
Debris Cloud
A rotating "cloud" of dust or debris, near or on the ground, often appearing beneath a condensation funnel and surrounding the base of a tornado. This term is similar to dust whirl, although the latter typically refers to a circulation which contains dust but not necessarily any debris. A dust plume, on the other hand, does not rotate. Note that a debris cloud appearing beneath a thunderstorm will confirm the presence of a tornado, even in the absence of a condensation funnel.
Deep Percolation Loss
In hydrologic terms, water that percolates downward through the soil beyond the reach of plant roots.
Deep Seepage
In hydrologic terms, infiltration which reaches the water table.
Dendrites
In hydrologic terms, thin branch-like growth of ice on the water surface.
Dense Fog Advisory
Issued when fog reduces visibility to 1/8 mile or less over a widespread area. For marine products: An advisory for widespread or localized fog reducing visibilities to regionally or locally defined limitations not to exceed 1 nautical mile.
Dense Smoke Advisory
An advisory for widespread or localized smoke reducing visibilities to regionally or locally defined limitations not to exceed 1 nautical mile.
Density Current
In hydrologic terms, a flow of water maintained by gravity through a large body of water, such as a reservoir or lake, and retaining its unmixed identity because of a difference in density.
Density of Snow
In hydrologic terms, the ratio, expressed as a percentage, of the volume which a given quantity of snow would occupy if it were reduced to water, to the volume of the snow. When a snow sampler is used, it is the ratio expressed as percentage of the scale reading on the sampler to the length of the snow core or sample.
Depression
A region of low atmospheric pressure that is usually accompanied by low clouds and precipitation. The term is also sometimes used as a reference to a Tropical Depression.
Depression Storage
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water contained in natural depressions in the land surface, such as puddles.
Derived Products
Processed base data on the Doppler radar.
Desertification
A tendency toward more prominent desert conditions in a region.
Design Criteria
In hydrologic terms, the hypothetical flood used in the sizing of the dam and the associated structures to prevent dam failure by overtopping, especially for the spillway and outlet works.
Detention Basins
Structures built upstream from populated areas to prevent runoff and/or debris flows from causing property damage and loss of life. They are normally dry, but are designed to attenuate storm flows or detain mud/debris during and immediately after a runoff event. They have no spillway gates or valves and do not store water on a long-term basis. Typical detention times for storm flows are on the order of 24 to 72 hours, but may be as long as 5 to 10 days. Basins designed for detention of mud and rock debris are periodically excavated to maintain their storage capacity.
Detention Storage
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water, other than depression storage, existing on the land surface as flowing water which has not yet reached the channel.
Detritus
In hydrologic terms,
(1) the heavier mineral debris moved by natural watercourses, usually in bed-load form.
(2) the sand, grit, and other coarse material removed by differential sedimentation in a relatively short period of detention.
Developing Gale/Storm
In the high seas and offshore forecasts, a headline used in the warnings section to indicate that gale/storm force winds are not now occurring but are expected before the end of the forecast period.
Dew Point Depression
The difference in degrees between the air temperature and the dew point.
DFUS
Diffuse
Diagnostic Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. A diagnostic model produces a wind field over an area by interpolating from actual wind observations.
Diamond Dust
A fall of non-branched (snow crystals are branched) ice crystals in the form of needles, columns, or plates.
Diffuse Ice
In hydrologic terms, poorly defined ice edge limiting an area of dispersed ice; usually on the leeward side of an area of floating ice.
Direct Solar Radiation
The component of solar radiation received by the earth's surface only from the direction of the sun's disk (i.e. it has not been reflected, refracted or scattered).
Directional Shear
The component of wind shear which is due to a change in wind direction with height, e.g., southeasterly winds at the surface and southwesterly winds aloft. A veering wind with height in the lower part of the atmosphere is a type of directional shear often considered important for tornado development.
Disappearing Solar Filament (DSF)
In solar-terrestrial terms, the sudden (timescale of minutes to hours) disappearance of a solar filament (prominence).
Discharge
In hydrologic terms, the rate at which water passes a given point. Discharge is expressed in a volume per time with units of L3/T. Discharge is often used interchangeably with streamflow.
Discharge Curve
In hydrologic terms, a curve that expresses the relation between the discharge of a stream or open conduit at a given location and the stage or elevation of the liquid surface at or near that location. Also called Rating Curve and Discharge Rating Curve.
Discharge Table
In hydrologic terms,

1. A table showing the relation between two mutually dependant quantities or variable over a given range of magnitude.

2. A table showing the relation between the gage height and the discharge of a stream or conduit at a given gaging station. Also called a Rating Table.
Disdrometer
Equipment that measures and records the size distribution of raindrops.
Disk
The visible surface of the sun (or any heavenly body) projected against the sky.
Dispersion
The process of separating radiation into various wavelengths.
Distribution (Hydro)Graph
In hydrologic terms, a unit hydrograph of direct runoff modified to show the proportions of the volume of runoff that occur during successive equal units of time.
Diurnal Cycles
Variations in meteorological parameters such as temperature and relative humidity over the course of a day which result from the rotation of the Earth about its axis and the resultant change in incoming and outgoing radiation.
Diversion
In hydrologic terms, the taking of water from a stream or other body of water into a canal, pipe, or other conduit.
Dividing Streamline
In the blocked flow region upwind of a mountain barrier, the streamline that separates the blocked flow region near the ground from the streamlines above which go over the barrier.
Dividing Streamline Height
The height above ground of the dividing streamline, as measured far upwind of a mountain barrier. See dividing streamline.
DMSH
Diminish
DNS
Dense
DNSTRM
Downstream
Dobson Unit
Unit used to measure the abundance of ozone in the atmosphere. One Dobson unit is the equivalent of 2.69/ x 1016 molecules of ozone/cm2.
Doldrums
The regions on either side of the equator where air pressure is low and winds are light.
Domestic Consumption
In hydrologic terms, the quantity, or quantity per capita, of water consumed in a municipality or district for domestic uses or purposes during a given period, generally one day. It is usually taken to include all uses included within the term Municipal Use of Water and quantity wasted, lost, or otherwise unaccounted for.
Domestic Use of water
In hydrologic terms, the use of water primarily for household purposes, the watering of livestock, the irrigation of gardens, lawns, shrubbery, etc., surrounding a house or domicile.
Downburst
A strong downdraft current of air from a cumulonimbus cloud, often associated with intense thunderstorms. Downdrafts may produce damaging winds at the surface.
Downslope Flow
A thermally driven wind directed down a mountain slope and usually occurring at night; part of the along-slope wind system.
Downstream
In the same direction as a stream or other flow, or toward the direction in which the flow is moving.
Downstream Slope
In hydrologic terms, the slope or face of the dam away from the reservoir water. This slope requires some kind of protection (e.g.; grass) from the erosive effects of rain and surface flow
Downwash
A deflection of air downward relative to an object that causes the deflection.
Drainage Basin
In hydrologic terms, a part of the surface of the earth that is occupied by a drainage system, which consists of a surface stream or a body of impounded surface water together with all tributary surface streams and bodies of impounded surface water.
Drainage Density
In hydrologic terms, the relative density of natural drainage channels in a given area. It is usually expressed in terms of miles of natural drainage or stream channel per square mile of area, and obtained by dividing the total length of stream channels in the area in miles by the area in square miles.
Drains (Relief Wells)
In hydrologic terms, a vertical well or borehole, usually downstream of impervious cores, grout curtains or cutoffs, designed to collect and direct seepage through or under a dam to reduce uplift pressure under or within a dam. A line of such wells forms a "drainage curtain".
Drifting Snow
Drifting snow is an uneven distribution of snowfall/snow depth caused by strong surface winds. Drifting snow may occur during or after a snowfall. Drifting snow is usually associated with blowing snow.
Drop-size Distribution
The distribution of rain drops or cloud droplets of specified sizes.
Drought Assessments
At the end of each month, CPC issues a long-term seasonal drought assessment. On Thursdays of each week, the CPC together with NOAA National Climatic Data Center, the United States Department of Agriculture, and the National Drought Mitigation Center in Lincoln, Nebraska, issues a weekly drought assessment called the United States Drought Monitor. These assessments review national drought conditions and indicate potential impacts for various economic sectors, such as agriculture and forestry.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
The rate at which the temperature of a parcel of dry air decreases as the parcel is lifted in the atmosphere. The dry adiabatic lapse rate (abbreviated DALR) is 5.5°F per 1000 ft or 9.8°C per km.
Dry Line Storm
Any thunderstorm that develops on or near a dry line.
Dry Microburst
A microburst with little or no precipitation reaching the ground; most common in semi-arid regions. They may or may not produce lightning. Dry microbursts may develop in an otherwise fair-weather pattern; visible signs may include a cumulus cloud or small Cb with a high base and high-level virga, or perhaps only an orphan anvil from a dying rain shower. At the ground, the only visible sign might be a dust plume or a ring of blowing dust beneath a local area of virga.
Dry Slot
A zone of dry (and relatively cloud-free) air which wraps east- or northeastward into the southern and eastern parts of a synoptic scale or mesoscale low pressure system. A dry slot generally is seen best on satellite photographs.
Dry Thunderstorm
Generally a high-based thunderstorm when lightning is observed, but little if any precipitation reaches the ground. Most of the rain produced by the thunderstorm evaporates into relatively dry air beneath the storm cell. May also be referred to as "dry lightning".
DSA
Special Tropical Disturbance Statement
DSIPT
Dissipate
Dst Index
A geomagnetic index describing variations in the equatorial ringcurrent
Duration of Sunshine
The amount of time sunlight was detected at a given point.
Dusk
Same as Civil Dusk; the time at which the sun is 6 degrees below the horizon in the evening. At this time objects are distinguishable but there is no longer enough light to perform any outdoor activities.
Dust Devil
A small, rapidly rotating wind that is made visible by the dust, dirt or debris it picks up. Also called a whirlwind, it develops best on clear, dry, hot afternoons
Dust Plume
A non-rotating "cloud" of dust raised by straight-line winds. Often seen in a microburst or behind a gust front.
Dust Storm
A severe weather condition characterized by strong winds and dust-filled air over an extensive area.
Dust Whirl
A rotating column of air rendered visible by dust.
DWNSLP
Downslope
Dynamics
Generally, any forces that produce motion or effect change. In operational meteorology, dynamics usually refer specifically to those forces that produce vertical motion in the atmosphere.
E-19, Report on River Gage Station
In hydrologic terms, a report to be completed every 5 years providing a complete history of a river station and all gages that have been used for public forecasts since the establishment of the station.
E-19a, Abridged Report on River Gage Sta
In hydrologic terms, an abridged version of an E-19, an E-19a updates the E-19 as additional information, or changes occur at the station during the intervening five year period. An E-19a is to be completed anytime a significant change occurs at a forecast point. An E-19a is also used to take the place of an E-19 in documenting any gage history, or information of any non-forecast point (i.e; data point).
E-3, Flood Stage Report
In hydrologic terms, a form that a Service Hydrologist/ Hydrology Focal Point completes to document the dates in which forecast points are above flood stage, as well as the crest dates and stages. Discussion of the flood event must also be included in the E-5, Monthly Report of River and Flood conditions. An E-3 report is sent to Regional Headquarters, the appropriate RFC, as well as the Office of Hydrology (OH).
Easterlies
Any winds with components from the east.
Easterly Wave
A low level disturbance of tropical origins. Easterly waves can develop into tropical cyclones. However, tropical cyclone development is not required in order for these systems to produce significant amounts of rainfall. The easterly waves are primarily a summer phenomenon.
EBS
Emergency Broadcast System
Echo Tops
The height above ground of the center of the radar beam using the tilt, or scan, that contains the highest elevation where reflectivities greater than 18 dBZ can be detected.
Effective Porosity
In hydrologic terms, the ratio, usually expressed as a percentage, of the volume of water or other liquid which a given saturated volume of rock or soil will yield under any specified hydraulic condition, to the given volume of soil or rock.
Effective Terrestrial Radiation
The difference between upwelling infrared or terrestrial radiation emitted from the earth and the downwelling infrared radiation from the atmosphere
Effluent Seepage
In hydrologic terms, diffuse discharge of ground water to the ground surface
Effluent Stream
In hydrologic terms, any watercourse in which all, or a portion of the water volume came from the Phreatic zone, or zone of saturation by way of groundwater flow, or baseflow
ELSW
Elsewhere
Emergency Services
In hydrologic terms, services provided in order to minimize the impact of a flood that is already happening. These measures are the responsibility of city, or county emergency management staff and the owners or operators of major, or critical facilities. Some examples of emergency services are flood warning and evacuation, flood response, and post flood activities.
Emissivity
The ability of a surface to emit radiant energy compared to that of a black body at the same temperature and with the same area.
Energy Dissipator
In hydrologic terms, a structure which slows fast-moving spillway flows in order to prevent erosion of the stream channel.
Engineer's Level
A telescope which is attached to a spirit-tube level, all revolving around a vertical axis and is mounted on a tripod. An Engineer's Level is used for determining the difference in elevation between two points. The telescope on the level has a vertical cross hair and a horizontal cross hair. Once the instrument is leveled, the sighting through the horizontal cross hair represents a horizontal plane of equal elevation.
ENSEMBLE
A collection of numerical model results that show slightly different possible outcomes.
Ensemble Forecast
Multiple predictions from an ensemble of slightly different initial conditions and/or various versions of models. The objectives are to improve the accuracy of the forecast through averaging the various forecasts, which eliminates non-predictable components, and to provide reliable information on forecast uncertainties from the diversity amongst ensemble members. Forecasters use this tool to measure the likelihood of a forecast.
Ensemble Hydrologic Forecasting
In hydrologic terms, a process whereby a continuous hydrologic model is successively executed several times for the same forecast period by use of varied data input scenarios, or a perturbation of a key variable state for each model run. A common method employed to obtain a varied data input scenario is to use the historical meteorological record, with the assumption that several years of observed data covering the time period beginning on the current date and extending through the forecast period comprises a reasonable estimate of the possible range of future conditions.
Ensembles
Reference to a set of computer models run under the concept of Ensemble Forecasting: multiple predictions from an ensemble of models with slightly different initial conditions used as input and/or slightly different versions of models. The objectives are to improve the accuracy of the forecast through averaging the various forecasts, which eliminates non-predictable components, and to provide reliable information on forecast uncertainties from the diversity amongst ensemble members. Forecasters use this tool to measure the likelihood of a forecast.
ENSO
Abbreviation for El Niño-Southern Oscillation, a reference to the state of the Southern Oscillation.
ENSO Diagnostic Discussion
The CPC issues the ENSO Diagnostic Discussion around the middle of the month. The discussion addresses the current oceanic and atmospheric conditions in the Pacific and the seasonal climate outlook for the following one to three seasons.
Environmental Lapse Rate
The rate of decrease of air temperature with height, usually measured with a radiosonde.
Environmental Temperature Sounding
An instantaneous or near-instantaneous sounding of temperature as a function of height. This sounding or vertical profile is usually obtained by a balloon-borne instrument, but can also be measured using remote sensing equipment.
Equilibrium Surface Discharge
In hydrologic terms, the steady rate of surface discharge which results from a long-continued, steady rate of net rainfall, with discharge rate equal to net rainfall rate
Erosion
In hydrologic terms, wearing away of the lands by running water, glaciers,winds, and waves, can be subdivided into three process: Corrasion, Corrosion, and Transportation. Weathering, although sometimes included here, is a distant process which does not imply removal of any material
ESP
Extended Streamflow Prediction
EST
Eastern Standard Time
Estuary
In hydrologic terms, the thin zone along a coastline where freshwater systems and rivers meet and mix with a salty ocean (such as a bay, mouth of a river, salt marsh, lagoon).
Esturine waters
In hydrologic terms, deepwater tidal habitats and tidal wetlands that are usually enclosed by land but have access to the ocean and are at least occasionally diluted by freshwater runoff from the land (such as bays, mouths of rivers, salt marshes, lagoons).
Esturine Zone
In hydrologic terms, the area near the coastline that consists of esturaries and coastal saltwater wetlands
Evapotranspiration
Combination of evaporation from free water surfaces and transpiration of water from plant surfaces to the atmosphere.
Excess Rain
In hydrologic terms, effective rainfall in excess of infiltration capacity.
Excessive Heat
Excessive heat occurs from a combination of high temperatures (significantly above normal) and high humidities. At certain levels, the human body cannot maintain proper internal temperatures and may experience heat stroke. The "Heat Index" is a measure of the effect of the combined elements on the body.
Excessive Heat Outlook
This CPC product, a combination of temperature and humidity over a certain number of days, is designed to provide an indication of areas of the country where people and animals may need to take precautions against the heat during May to November.
Excessive Heat Warning
Issued within 12 hours of the onset of the following criteria: heat index of at least 105°F for more than 3 hours per day for 2 consecutive days, or heat index more than 115°F for any period of time.
Excessive Heat Watch
Issued by the National Weather Service when heat indices in excess of 105ºF (41ºC) during the day combined with nighttime low temperatures of 80ºF (27ºC) or higher are forecast to occur for two consecutive days.
Excessive Rainfall Outlook (ERO)
A graphical product in which the Weather Prediction Center (WPC) forecasts the probability that rainfall will exceed flash flood guidance (FFG) within 40 kilometers (25 miles) of a point.
Exclusive Flood Control Storage Capacity
In hydrologic terms, the space in a reservoir reserved for the sole purpose of regulating flood inflows to abate flood damage
Exosphere
The upper most layer of the earth's atmosphere; the only layer where atmospheric gases can escape into outer space.
Explosive Deepening
A decrease in the minimum sea-level pressure of a tropical cyclone of 2.5 mb/hr for at least 12 hours or 5 mb/hr for at least six hours.
Extended Forecast Discussion
This discussion is issued once a day around 2 PM EST (3 PM EDT) and is primarily intended to provide insight into guidance forecasts for the 3- to 5-day forecast period. The geographic focus of this discussion is on the United States (including Alaska and Hawaii). Although portions of this narrative will parallel the Hemispheric Map Discussion, a much greater effort is made to routinely relate the model forecasts and necessary modifications to weather forecasts, mainly in terms of temperature and precipitation.
Extraterrestrial Radiation
The theoretically-calculated radiation flux from the sun at the top of the atmosphere, before losses by atmospheric absorption.
EXTSV
Extensive
F Scale
Abbreviation for Fujita Scale, a system of rating the intensity of tornadoes; for detailed information, see the definition for that term.
Fallstreak
Same as Virga; streaks or wisps of precipitation falling from a cloud but evaporating before reaching the ground. In certain cases, shafts of virga may precede a microburst.
FASTST
Fastest
FAWS
Flight Advisory Weather Service
FCST
Forecast
Federal Snow Sampler
In hydrologic terms, a snow sampler consisting of five or more sections of sampling tubes, one which has a steel cutter on the end. The combined snowpack measuring depth is 150 inches. This instrument was formerly the Mount Rose Type Snow Sampling Set.
Feeder Bands
Lines or bands of low-level clouds that move (feed) into the updraft region of a thunderstorm, usually from the east through south (i.e., parallel to the inflow). Same as inflow bands. This term also is used in tropical meteorology to describe spiral-shaped bands of convection surrounding, and moving toward, the center of a tropical cyclone.
Few Clouds
An official sky cover classification for aviation weather observations, descriptive of a sky cover of 1/8 to 2/8. This is applied only when obscuring phenomenon aloft are present--that is, not when obscuring phenomenon are surface-based, such as fog.
Field (Moisture) Capacity
The amount of water held in soil against the pull of gravity
Field Moisture Deficiency
The quantity of water, which would be required to restore the soil moisture to field moisture capacity.
Firn (Snow)
In hydrologic terms, old snow on top of glaciers, granular and compact and not yet converted into ice. It is a transitional stage between snow and ice. Also called Neve.
First Law of Thermodynamics
The law of physics that states that the heat absorbed by a system either raises the internal energy of the system or does work on the environment.
Flash
A sudden, brief illumination of a conductive channel associated with lightning, which may contain multiple strokes with their associated stepped leaders, dart leaders and return strokes.
Flash Flood
A rapid and extreme flow of high water into a normally dry area, or a rapid water level rise in a stream or creek above a predetermined flood level, beginning within six hours of the causative event (e.g., intense rainfall, dam failure, ice jam). However, the actual time threshold may vary in different parts of the country. Ongoing flooding can intensify to flash flooding in cases where intense rainfall results in a rapid surge of rising flood waters.
Flash Flood Guidance
(FFG) Forecast guidance produced by the River Forecast Centers, often model output, specific to the potential for flash flooding (e.g., how much rainfall over a given area will be required to produce flash flooding).
Flash Flood Statement
(FFS) In hydrologic terms, a statement by the NWS which provides follow-up information on flash flood watches and warnings.
Flash Flood Table
In hydrologic terms, a table of pre-computed forecast crest stage values for small streams for a variety of antecedent moisture conditions and rain amounts. Soil moisture conditions are often represented by flash flood guidance values. In lieu of crest stages, categorical representations of flooding, e.g., minor, moderate, etc. may be used on the tables.
Flash Flood Warning
Issued to inform the public, emergency management, and other cooperating agencies that flash flooding is in progress, imminent, or highly likely.
Flash Flood Watch
Issued to indicate current or developing hydrologic conditions that are favorable for flash flooding in and close to the watch area, but the occurrence is neither certain or imminent.
Flash Multiplicity
The number of return strokes in a lightning flash.
Flashboards
In hydrologic terms, a length of timber, concrete, or steel placed on the crest of a spillway to raise the retention water level but which may be quickly removed in the event of a flood by a tripping device, or by deliberately designed failure of the flashboard or its supports
Flood Categories
Terms defined for each forecast point which describe or categorize the severity of flood impacts in the corres­ponding river/stream reach. Each flood category is bounded by an upper and lower stage (see Example 1). The severity of flooding at a given stage is not necessarily the same at all locations along a river reach due to varying channel/bank characteristics or presence of levees on portions of the reach. Therefore, the upper and lower stages for a given flood category are usually associated with water levels corresponding to the most significant flood impacts some­where in the reach. The flood categories used in the NWS are: *Minor Flooding* - minimal or no property damage, but possibly some public threat. *Moderate Flooding* - some inundation of structures and roads near stream. Some evacuations of people and/or transfer of property to higher elevations. *Major Flooding* - extensive inundation of structures and roads. Significant evacuations of people and/or transfer of property to higher elevations. *Record Flooding* - flooding which equals or exceeds the highest stage or discharge at a given site during the period of record keeping. Note: all three of the lower flood categories (minor, moderate, major) do not necessarily exist for a given forecast point. For example, at the level where a river reaches flood stage, it may be considered moderate flooding. However, at least one of these three flood categories must start at flood stage.
Flood Control Storage
In hydrologic terms, storage of water in reservoirs to abate flood damage
Flood Crest
Maximum height of a flood wave as it passes a certain location.
Flood Loss Reduction Measures
In hydrologic terms, the strategy for reducing flood losses. There are four basic strategies. They are prevention, property protection, emergency services, and structural projects. Each strategy incorporates different measures that are appropriate for different conditions. In many communities, a different person may be responsible for each strategy.
Flood Problems
In hydrologic terms, problems and damages that occur during a flood as a result of human development and actions. Flood problems are a result from:
1) Inappropriate development in the floodplain (e.g., building too low, too close to the channel, or blocking flood flows);
2) Development in the watershed that increases flood flows and creates a larger floodplain, or;
3) A combination of the previous two.
Flood Stage
An established gage height for a given location above which a rise in water surface level begins to create a hazard to lives, property, or commerce. The issuance of flood (or in some cases flash flood) warnings is linked to flood stage. Not necessarily the same as bankfull stage.
Flood Statement (FLS)
In hydrologic terms, a statement issued by the NWS to inform the public of flooding along major streams in which there is not a serious threat to life or property. It may also follow a flood warning to give later information.
Flow Separation
The process by which a separation eddy forms on the windward or leeward sides of bluff objects or steeply rising hillsides.
Flow Splitting
The splitting of a stable airflow around a mountain barrier, with branches going around the left and right edges of the barrier, often at accelerated speeds.
FLS
River Flood Statement
Flurries
Snow flurries are an intermittent light snowfall of short duration (generally light snow showers) with no measurable accumulation (trace category).
FNTGNS
Frontogenesis
FNTLYS
Frontolysis
Foehn Pause
A temporary cessation of the foehn at the ground due to the formation or intrusion of a cold air layer which lifts the foehn off the ground.
foEs
In solar-terrestrial terms, the maximum ordinary mode radiowave frequency capable of reflec- tion from the sporadic E region of the ionosphere.
Forecast
A statement of prediction.
Forecast Crest
In hydrologic terms, the highest elevation of river level, or stage, expected during a specified storm event.
Forecast Guidance
Computer-generated forecast materials used to assist the preparation of a forecast, such as numerical forecast models.
Forecast Issuance Stage
The stage which, when reached by a rising stream, represents the level where RFCs need to begin issuing forecasts for a non-routine (flood-only) forecast point. This stage is coordinated between WFO and RFC personnel and is not necessarily the same as action or alert stage. The needs of WFO/RFC partners and other users are considered in determining this stage.
Forecast Periods
Official definitions for NWS products:

Today...............................Sunrise to sunset
This afternoon..................noon till 6 p.m.
This evening.....................6 p.m. till sunset
Tonight.............................sunset till sunrise
Tomorrow.........................sunrise to sunset of the following day
Forecast Point
A location along a river or stream for which hydrologic forecast and warning services are provided by a WFO. The observed/forecast stage or discharge for a given forecast point can be assumed to represent conditions in a given reach (see /reach/).
Forecast valid for
The period of time the forecast is in effect beginning at a given day, date and time, and ending at a given day, date and time.
Foresight
In hydrologic terms, a sighting on a point of unknown elevation from an instrument of known elevation. To determine the elevation of the point in question, the foresight is subtracted from the height of the instrument.
FOUS
Forecast Output United States
FPS
Fujita-Pearson Scale
Fractocumulus
A cumulus cloud presenting a ragged, shredded appearance, as if torn.
Fractostratus
A stratus cloud presenting a ragged, shredded appearance, as if torn. It differs from a fractocumulus cloud in having a smaller vertical extent and darker color.
Fractus
Ragged, detached cloud fragments; same as scud.
Frazil Slush
In hydrologic terms, an agglomerate of loosely packed frazil which floats or accumulates under the ice cover.
Free Atmosphere
The part of the atmosphere that lies above the frictional influence of the earth's surface.
Freezing Drizzle Advisory
Issued when freezing rain or freezing drizzle is forecast but a significant accumulation is not expected. However, even small amounts of freezing rain or freezing drizzle may cause significant travel problems.
Freezing Rain Advisory
Issued when freezing rain or freezing drizzle is forecast but a significant accumulation is not expected. However, even small amounts of freezing rain or freezing drizzle may cause significant travel problems.
Freezing Spray
An accumulation of freezing water droplets on a vessel caused by some appropriate combination of cold water, wind, cold air temperature, and vessel movement.
Freezing Spray Advisory
An advisory for an accumulation of freezing water droplets on a vessel at a rate of less than 2 centimeters (cm) per hour caused by some appropriate combination of cold water, wind, cold air temperature, and vessel movement.
Freshet
the annual spring rise of streams in cold climates as a result of snow melt; freshet also refers to a flood caused by rain or melting snow.
Frontal Inversion
A temperature inversion that develops aloft when warm air overruns the cold air behind a front.
Frontogenesis
1. The initial formation of a front or frontal zone. 2. In general, an increase in the horizontal gradient of an airmass property, principally density, and the development of the accompanying features of the wind field that typify a front.
FROSFC
Frontal Surface
Frost
(Abbrev. FRST) - Frost describes the formation of thin ice crystals on the ground or other surfaces in the form of scales, needles, feathers, or fans. Frost develops under conditions similar to dew, except the temperatures of the Earth's surface and earthbound objects falls below 32°F. As with the term "freeze," this condition is primarily significant during the growing season. If a frost period is sufficiently severe to end the growing season or delay its beginning, it is commonly referred to as a "killing frost." Because frost is primarily an event that occurs as the result of radiational cooling, it frequently occurs with a thermometer level temperature in the mid-30s.
Frost Advisory
Issued during the growing season when widespread frost formation is expected over an extensive area. Surface temperatures are usually in the mid 30s Fahrenheit.
Frost Point
Dew point below freezing.
Frostbite
Human tissue damage caused by exposure to intense cold.
FRST
Frost- Frost describes the formation of thin ice crystals on the ground or other surfaces in the form of scales, needles, feathers, or fans. Frost develops under conditions similar to dew, except the temperatures of the Earth's surface and earthbound objects falls below 32°F. As with the term "freeze," this condition is primarily significant during the growing season. If a frost period is sufficiently severe to end the growing season or delay its beginning, it is commonly referred to as a "killing frost." Because frost is primarily an event that occurs as the result of radiational cooling, it frequently occurs with a thermometer level temperature in the mid-30s.
FSCBG
A specific aerial spray dispersion model. The acronym comes from the names of the sponsor and developers (Forest Service, Cramer, Barry, Grim).
Fugitive Dust
Dust that is not emitted from definable point sources such as industrial smokestacks. Sources include open fields, roadways, storage piles, etc.
Fujita Scale
(or F Scale) - A scale of tornado intensity in which wind speeds are inferred from an analysis of wind damage:

RatingWind, Damage
F0 (weak)40-72 mph, light damage
F1 (weak)73-112 mph, moderate damage
F2 (strong)113-157 mph, considerable damage
F3 (strong)158-206 mph, severe damage
F4 (violent)207-260 mph, devestating damage
F5 (violent)260-318 mph (rare), incredible damage


All tornadoes, and most other severe local windstorms, are assigned a single number from this scale according to the most intense damage caused by the storm.
Full-Physics Numerical Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. A full-physics numerical model uses a full set of equations describing the thermodynamic and dynamic state of the atmosphere and can be used to simulate atmospheric phenomena.
Gaging Station
In hydrologic terms, a particular site on a watercourse where systematic observations of stage/ and or flow are measured.
Gap Winds
Strong winds channeled through gaps in the Pacific coastal ranges, blowing out into the Pacific Ocean or into the waterways of the Inside Passage. The winds blow through low passes where major river valleys issue onto the seaways when strong east-west pressure gradients exist between the coast and the inland areas, with low pressure over the ocean.
Gas Laws
The thermodynamic laws pertaining to perfect gases, including Boyle's law, Charles' law, Dalton's law and the equation of state.
Gauss
The unit of magnetic induction in the cgs (centimeter-gram- second) system
Gaussian Plume Model
A computer model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. The model assumes that a pollutant plume is carried downwind from its emission source by a mean wind and that concentrations in the plume can be approximated by assuming that the highest concentrations occur on the horizontal and vertical midlines of the plume, with the distribution about these mid-lines characterized by Gaussian- or bell-shaped concentration profiles.
Gaussian Puff Model
A model used to calculate air pollution concentrations. The model assumes that a continuously emitted plume or instantaneous cloud of pollutants can be simulated by the release of a series of puffs that will be carried in a time- and space-varying wind field. The puffs are assumed to have Gaussian or bell-shaped concentration profiles in their vertical and horizontal planes.
General Circulation Models
(GCMs) - These computer simulations reproduce the Earth's weather patterns and can be used to predict change in the weather and climate.
Geomagnetic Elements
In solar-terrestrial terms, the components of the geomagnetic field at the surface of the earth. In SESC use, the northward and eastward components are often called the H and D components, where the D component is expressed in gammas and is derived from D (the declination angle) using the small angle approximation.
Geomagnetic Storm
In solar-terrestraial terms, a worldwide disturbance of the earth's magnetic field, distinct from regular diurnal variations.
Minor Geomagnetic Storm: A storm for which the Ap index was greater than 29 and less than 50.
Major Geomagnetic Storm: A storm for which the Ap index was greater than 49 and less than 100.
Severe Geomagnetic Storm: A storm for which the Ap index was 100 or more.
Initial Phase: Of a geomagnetic storm, that period when there may be an increase of the middle-latitude horizontal intensity (H).
Main Phase: Of a geomagnetic storm, that period when the hori- zontal magnetic field at middle latitudes is generally decreasing.
Recovery Phase: Of a geomagnetic storm, that period when the depressed northward field component returns to normal levels.
Geophysical Events
In solar-terrestrial terms, flares (Importance two or larger) with Centimetric Outbursts (maximum of the flux higher than the Quiet Sun flux, duration longer 10 minutes) and/or strong SID. Sometimes these flares are followed by Geomagnetic Storms or small PCA. (Class M Flares)
Geophysics
In hydrologic terms, the study of the physical characteristics and properties of the earth; including geodesy, seismology, meteorology, oceanography, atmospheric electricity, terrestrial magnetism, and tidal phenomena.
Geostationary Satellite
A satellite that rotates at the same rate as the earth, remaining over the same spot above the equator.
Geostrophic Wind
A wind that is affected by coriolis force, blows parallel to isobars and whose strength is related to the pressure gradient (i.e., spacing of the isobars).
Geosynchronous
Term applied to any equatorial satellite with an orbital velocity equal to the rotational velocity of the earth. The net effect is that the satellite is virtually motionless with respect to an observer on the ground
GFS
(Global Forecast System) One of the operational forecast models run at NCEP. The GFS is run four times daily, with forecast output out to 384 hours.
GIS
Geographic Information System. A computer-based graphics program that allows the superposition of plan-maps of thematic elements, such as roads, rivers, land use patterns, and the like to aid in local or regional planning activities.
Global Ensemble Forecast System (GEFS)
A weather forecast model made up of 21 separate forecasts, or ensemble members. The National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) started the GEFS to address the nature of uncertainty in weather observations, which are used to initialize weather forecast models.
Global Forecast System
(GFS)- One of the operational forecast models run at NCEP. The GFS is run four times daily, with forecast output out to 384 hours.
GLS
(Great Lakes Storm Summary) A National Weather Service forecast product providing updated information whenever a storm warning is in effect on any of the Great Lakes.
GMDSS
(Global Maritime Distress and Safety System)- The Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is intended to provide more effective and efficient emergency and safety communications and disseminate Maritime Safety Information (MSI) to all ships on the world's oceans regardless of location or atmospheric conditions. MSI includes navigational warnings, meteorological warnings and forecasts, and other urgent safety related information GMDSS goals are defined in the International Convention for The Safety Of Life At Sea (SOLAS). The National Weather Service participates directly in the GMDSS by preparing meteorological forecasts and warnings for broadcast via NAVTEX and SafetyNET.
GOES
Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite- Satellites orbiting at 22,370 miles above the Equator with the same rotational velocity as the Earth; therefore, the satellite remains over the same location on the Earth 24 hours a day. Besides sending back satellite pictures to earth, it also relays the DCPs river and rainfall data back to the ground
GoMoos
Gulf Of Maine Ocean Observing System
GPS
An acronym for Global Positioning System. A network of satellites which provide extremely accurate position and time information. Useful in remote locations or for moving platforms.
Gradient High Winds
These high winds usually cover a large area and are due to synoptic-scale, extra-tropical low pressure systems.
Great Lakes Faxback
Dissemination systems housed at Weather Forecast Office (WFO) Cleveland by which Great Lakes customers request and receive hard copies of selected marine products.
Great Lakes Freeze-Up/Break-Up Outlook
(FBO) - A National Weather Service product to keep mariners informed of the projected freeze-up date or break-up date of ice on the Great Lakes.
Great Lakes Marine Forecast (MAFOR)
A National Weather Service coded summary appended to each of the Great Lakes Open Lakes forecasts.
Great Lakes Storm Summary
(GLS) - A National Weather Service forecast product providing updated information whenever a storm warning is in effect on any of the Great Lakes.
Great Lakes Weather Broadcast
(LAWEB) - A National Weather Service product containing an observation summary prepared to provide Great Lakes mariners with a listing of weather observations along or on the Lakes.
Greenhouse Effect
Atmospheric heating caused by solar radiation being readily transmitted inward through the earth's atmosphere but longwave radiation less readily transmitted outward, due to absorption by certain gases in the atmosphere.
Greenhouse Gases
The gases that absorb terrestrial radiation and contribute to the greenhouse effect; the main greenhouse gasses are water vapor, methane, carbon dioxide, and ozone.
Grids
1) Squared off areas across the terrain used to define forecast areas. Often 5x5 or 2.5x2.5 kilometer in size. 2) Digitial forecast databases for meteorological elements, including temperature, wind direction, wind speed and others. Computer programs read these databases to create worded and graphical forecast products used by the public and others.
Ground receive sites
In hydrologic terms, a satellite dish and associated computer which receives signals from the GOES satellite, decodes the information, and transmits it to a another site for further processing. The GOES satellite ground-receive site is located at Wallops Island, VA; and the information is relayed to a mainframe computer at NWSH for processing.
Ground Stroke
The current that propagates along the ground from the point where a direct stroke of lightning hits the ground.
Growing Season
the period of time between the last killing frost of spring and the first killing frost of autumn.
GRTST
Greatest
GSP
On a buoy report, maximum 5-second peak gust during the measurement hour, reported at the last hourly 10-minute segment.
GST
On a buoy report, peak 5 or 8 second gust speed (m/s) measured during the eight-minute or two-minute period. The 5 or 8 second period can be determined by payload.
GSTY
Gusty
Gulf Stream
Warm water current extending from the Gulf of Mexico and Florida up the U.S. east coast then east northeast to Iceland and Norway.
Gust
(Abbrev. G) - A rapid fluctuation of wind speed with variations of 10 knots or more between peaks and lulls.
Gust Front
The leading edge of gusty surface winds from thunderstorm downdrafts; sometimes associated with a shelf cloud or roll cloud. See also gustnado or outflow boundary.
Gustnado
(or Gustinado) - A gustnado is a small, whirlwind which forms as an eddy in thunderstorm outflows. They do not connect with any cloud-base rotation and are not tornadoes. Since their origin is associated with cumuliform clouds, gustnadoes will be classified as Thunderstorm Wind events. Like dust devils, some stronger gustnadoes can cause damage.
Gyres
Oceanic current systems of planetary scale driven by the global wind system.
Hail Size
Typically refers to the diameter of the hailstones. Warnings and reports may report hail size through comparisons with real-world objects that correspond to certain diameters:

DescriptionDiameter (inches)
Pea0.25
Marble or Mothball0.50
Penny or Dime0.75
Nickel0.88
Quarter1.00
Half Dollar1.25
Walnut or Ping Pong Ball1.50
Golfball1.75
Hen's Egg2.00
Tennis Ball2.50
Baseball2.75
Tea Cup3.00
Grapefruit4.00
Softball4.50
Hail Spike
An area of reflectivity extending away from the radar immediately behind a thunderstorm with extremely large hail. In an area of large hail, radiation from the radar can bounce from hailstone to hailstone before being reflected back to the radar. The time delay between the backscattered radiation from the storm and the bounced and scattered radiation from the large hail causes the reflectivity from the hail to appear to come from a farther range than the actual storm.
Haines Index
This is also called the Lower Atmosphere Stability Index. It is computed from the morning (12Z) soundings from RAOB stations across North America. The index is composed of a stability term and a moisture term. The stability term is derived from the temperature difference at two atmosphere levels. The moisture term is derived from the dew point depression at a single atmosphere level. This index has been shown to be correlated with large fire growth on initiating and existing fires where surface winds do not dominate fire behavior. The Haines Indices range from 2 to 6 for indicating potential for large fire growth
Hazardous Seas Warning
A warning for wave heights and/or wave steepness values meeting or exceeding locally defined warning criteria.
Hazardous Seas Watch
A watch for an increased risk of a hazardous seas warning event to meet Hazardous Seas Warning criteria but its occurrence, location, and/or timing is still uncertain.
Hazardous Weather Outlook
A narrative statement produced by the National Weather Service, frequently issued on a routine basis, to provide information regarding the potential of significant weather expected during the next 1 to 5 days.
Hazards Assessment
CPC's Hazards Assessment provides emergency managers, planners, forecasters and the public advance notice of potential hazards related to climate, weather and hydrological events.
Head Loss
In hydrologic terms, the decrease in total head caused by friction
Headward Erosion
In hydrologic terms, erosion which occurs in the upstream end of the valley of a stream, causing it to lengthen its course in such a direction.
Headwater Basin
In hydrologic terms, a basin at the headwaters of a river. All discharge of the river at this point is developed within the basin.
Headwaters
In hydrologic terms, streams at the source of a river.
Heat Advisory
Issued within 12 hours of the onset of the following conditions: heat index of at least 105°F but less than 115°F for less than 3 hours per day, or nighttime lows above 80°F for 2 consecutive days.
Heat Exhaustion
A mild form of heat stroke, characterized by faintness, dizziness, and heavy sweating.
Heat Stroke
A condition resulting from excessive exposure to intense heat, characterized by high fever, collapse, and sometimes convulsions or coma.
Heating Degree Days
(abbrev. HDD) A form of degree day used to estimate energy requirements for heating. Typically, heating degree days are calculated as how much colder the mean temperature at a location is than 65°F on a given day. For example, if a location experiences a mean temperature of 55°F on a certain day, there were 10 HDD (Heating Degree Days) that day because 65 - 55 = 10.
Heavy Freezing Spray
An accumulation of freezing water droplets on a vessel at a rate of two cm per hour or greater (0.7 cm per hour or greater in Alaska Region) caused by some appropriate combination of cold water, wind, cold air temperature, and vessel movement.
Heavy Freezing Spray Warning
A warning for an accumulation of freezing water droplets on a vessel at a rate of two cm per hour or greater (0.7 cm per hour or greater in Alaska Region) caused by some appropriate combination of cold water, wind, cold air temperature, and vessel movement.
Heavy Freezing Spray Watch
A watch for an increased risk of a heavy freezing spray event to meet Heavy Freezing Spray Warning criteria but its occurrence, location, and/or timing is still uncertain.
Heavy Snow
This generally means...
  • snowfall accumulating to 4" or more in depth in 12 hours or less; or
  • snowfall accumulating to 6" or more in depth in 24 hours or less

In forecasts, snowfall amounts are expressed as a range of values, e.g., "8 to 12 inches." However, in heavy snow situations where there is considerable uncertainty concerning the range of values, more appropriate phrases are used, such as "...up to 12 inches..." or alternatively "...8 inches or more...".
Heavy Snow Warning
Issued by the National Weather Service when snowfall of 6 inches (15 cm) or more in 12 hours or 8 inches (20 cm) or more in 24 hours is imminent or occurring. These criteria are specific for the Midwest and may vary regionally.
Heavy Surf Advisory
An advisory issued by the National Weather Service for fast moving deep water waves which can result in big breaking waves in shallow water (the surf zone).
Hectopascal
A unit of pressure equal to a millibar (1 hPa = 1 mb). Abbreviated hPa.
Height Above the Nearest Drainage (HAND)
A relative elevation methodology used in inundation mapping, which determines the height of every point on a land surface above the nearest stream reach to which it drains.
High Clouds
These clouds have bases between 16,500 and 45,000 feet in the mid latitudes. At this level they are composed of primarily of ice crystals. Some clouds at this level are cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus
High Latitudes
With specific reference to zones of geomagnetic activity, "high latitudes" refers to 50º to 80º geomagnetic.
High Resolution Ensemble Forecast (HREF)
An ensemble of products from several different models running at ~3 km horizontal grid spacing.
High Resolution Rapid Refresh (HRRR)
A real-time 3-km resolution, hourly updated, cloud-resolving, convection-allowing atmospheric model, initialized by 3km grids with 3km radar assimilation.
High Risk (of severe thunderstorms)
Severe weather is expected to affect more than 10 percent of the area. A high risk is rare, and implies an unusually dangerous situation and usually the possibility of a major severe weather outbreak.
High Seas Forecast
(HSF) - Marine forecasts for the major oceans of the world. In this context, major gulfs or seas (e.g., the Gulf of Mexico or the Bering Sea) are included within these forecast areas. Areas of responsibility for the U.S. are determined by international agreements under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
High Surf
Large waves breaking on or near the shore resulting from swells spawned by a distant storm.
High Surf Advisory
A High Surf Advisory is issued when breaking wave action poses a threat to life and property within the surf zone. High surf criteria vary by region. High Surf Advisories are issued using the Coastal and Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
High Surf Warning
A High Surf Warning is issued when breaking wave action results in an especially heightened threat to life and property within the surf zone. High surf criteria vary by region. High Surf Warnings are issued using the Coastal and Lakeshore Hazard Message (CFW) product.
High Wind Advisory
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when high wind speeds may pose a hazard. The criteria for this advisory varies from state to state. In Michigan, the criteria is sustained non-convective (not related to thunderstorms) winds greater than or equal to 30 mph lasting for one hour or longer, or winds greater than or equal to 45 mph for any duration.
High-Speed Stream
In solar-terrestrial terms, a feature of the solar wind having velocities that are about double average solar wind values.
HLS
Hurricane Local Statement
Hoar Frost
A deposit of interlocking crystals formed by direct sublimation on objects, usually those of small diameter freely exposed to the air, such as tree branches, plants, wires, poles, etc. The deposition of hoar frost is similar to the process by which dew is formed, except that the temperature of the frosted object must be below freezing. It forms when air with a dew point below freezing is brought to saturation by cooling.
Homologous Flares
In solar-terrestrial terms, solar flares that occur repetitively in the same active region, with essentially the same position and with a common pattern of development
HP Storm
or HP Supercell - High-Precipitation storm (or High-Precipitation supercell). A supercell thunderstorm in which heavy precipitation (often including hail) falls on the trailing side of the mesocyclone.

Precipitation often totally envelops the region of rotation, making visual identification of any embedded tornadoes difficult and very dangerous. Unlike most classic supercells, the region of rotation in many HP storms develops in the front-flank region of the storm (i.e., usually in the eastern portion). HP storms often produce extreme and prolonged downburst events, serious flash flooding, and very large damaging hail events.
HRS
hours
HSA (Hydrologic Service Area)
A geographical area assigned to Weather Service Forecast Office's/Weather Forecast Office's that embraces one or more rivers.
Hurricane Local Statement
A public release prepared by local National Weather Service offices in or near a threatened area giving specific details for its county/parish warning area on
(1) weather conditions
(2) evacuation decisions made by local officials
(3) other precautions necessary to protect life and property.
Hurricane Season
The part of the year having a relatively high incidence of tropical cyclones. In the Atlantic, Caribbean, and Gulf of Mexico, and central North Pacific, the hurricane season is the period from June through November; in the eastern Pacific, May 15 through November 30. Tropical cyclones can occur year-round in any basin.
Hydrograph Separation
In hydrologic terms, the process where the storm hydrograph is separated into baseflow components and surface runoff components.
Hydrographic Survey
In hydrologic terms, an instrumental survey to measure and determine characteristics of streams and other bodies of water within an area, including such things as location, areal extent, and depth of water in lakes or the ocean; the width, depth, and course of streams; position and elevation of high water marks; location and depth of wells, etc.
Hydrologic Ensemble Forecast System (HEFS)
A probabilistic forecast tool with the goals to provide hydrologic forecasts including an analysis of “probable outcomes” and to minimize biases in the atmospheric models and in the hydrologic models.
Hydrologic Service Area
HSA. A geographical area assigned to Weather Service Forecast Office's/Weather Forecast Office's that embraces one or more rivers.
Hydrometeorologists
In hydrologic terms, individuals who have the combined knowledge in the fields of both meteorology and hydrology which enables them to study and solve hydrologic problems where meteorology is a factor.
Hydrostatic Head
In hydrologic terms, a measure of pressure at a given point in a liquid in terms of the vertical height of a column of the same liquid which would produce the same pressure
Hygroscopic
Absorbing or attracting moisture from the air.
Ice Crystals
A barely visible crystalline form of ice that has the shape of needles, columns or plates. Ice crystals are so small that they seem to be suspended in air. Ice crystals occur at very low temperatures in a stable atmosphere.
Ice Nucleus
Any particle that serves as a nucleus in the formation of ice crystals in the atmosphere.
Ice Pellets
(abbrev. IP) Same as Sleet; defined as pellets of ice composed of frozen or mostly frozen raindrops or refrozen partially melted snowflakes. These pellets of ice usually bounce after hitting the ground or other hard surfaces. A Winter Storm Warning is issued for sleet or a combination of sleet and snow based on total accumulation which is locally defined by area.
Ice Push
In hydrologic terms, compression of an ice cover particularly at the front of a moving section of ice cover.
Ice Shove
In hydrologic terms, on-shore ice push caused by wind, and currents, changes in temperature, etcetera.
Ice Storm
An ice storm is used to describe occasions when damaging accumulations of ice are expected during freezing rain situations. Significant accumulations of ice pull down trees and utility lines resulting in loss of power and communication. These accumulations of ice make walking and driving extremely dangerous. Significant ice accumulations are usually accumulations of ¼" or greater.
Ice Storm Warning
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when freezing rain produces a significant and possibly damaging accumulation of ice. The criteria for this warning varies from state to state, but typically will be issued any time more than 1/4" of ice is expected to accumulate in an area.
Ideal Gas Laws
The thermodynamic laws applying to perfect gases.
Impervious
In hydrologic terms, the ability to repel water, or not let water infiltrate
Impulse
(abbrev. IMPL) Alternate term for Upper Level System and Shortwave; a general term for any large-scale or mesoscale disturbance capable of producing upward motion (lift) in the middle or upper parts of the atmosphere.
Inactive Storage Capacity
In hydrologic terms, the portion of capacity below which the reservoir is not normally drawn, and which is provided for sedimentation, recreation, fish and wildlife, aesthetic reasons, or for the creation of a minimum controlled operational or power head in compliance with operating agreements or restrictions.
Inch-Degrees
The product of rainfall (in inches) multiplied by the temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit) above freezing. Used as a measure of the snowmelting capacity of rainfall.
Inches of Mercury
(or in Hg) Unit of atmospheric pressure used in the United States. The name comes from the use of mercurial barometers which equate the height of a column of mercury with air pressure. One inch of mercury is equivalent to 33.86 millibars or 25.40 millimeters. See barometric pressure. First divised in 1644 by Evangelista Torricelli (1608-1647), an Italian physicist and mathematician, to explain the fundamental principles of hydromechanics.

To convert millibars (mb) to inches of mercury (in Hg), divide the millibar reading by 33.86:
in Hg = mb / 33.86
Inches of Runoff
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water from runoff of a given depth over the entire drainage
Index of Wetness
The ratio of precipitation for a given year over the mean annual precipitation.
Industrial Consumption
The quantity of water consumed in a municipality or district for mechanical, trade, and manufacturing purposes, in a given period, generally one day. The per capita use is generally based on the total population of the locality, municipality, or district.
Inflow Bands
Bands of low clouds, arranged parallel to the low-level winds and moving into or toward a thunderstorm. They may indicate the strength of the inflow of moist air into the storm, and, hence, its potential severity. Spotters should be especially wary of inflow bands that are curved in a manner suggesting cyclonic rotation; this pattern may indicate the presence of a mesocyclone
Inflow Jets
Local jets of air near the ground flowing inward toward the base of a tornado.
Inflow Stinger
A beaver tail cloud with a stinger-like shape.
Influent Seepage
In hydrologic terms, movement of gravity water in the zone of aeration from the ground surface toward the water table.
Influent Stream
In hydrologic terms, any watercourse in which all, or a portion of the surface water flows back into the ground namely the, vadose zone, or zone of aeration
Infrared Satellite Imagery
This satellite imagery senses surface and cloud top temperatures by measuring the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation emitted from these objects. This energy is called "infrared". High clouds are very cold, so they appear white. Mid-level clouds are somewhat warmer, so they will be a light gray shade. Low cloud are warmer still, so they appear as a dark shade of gray or black. Often, low clouds are the same temperature as the surrounding terrain and cannot be distinguished at all. The satellite picks up this infrared energy between 10.5 and 12.6 micrometer (um) channels.
Inland freshwater wetlands
In hydrologic terms, swamps, marshes, and bogs found inland beyond the coastal saltwater wetlands.
Insolation
Incoming solar radiation. Solar heating; sunshine.
Instability
(abbrev. INSTBY)- The tendency for air parcels to accelerate when they are displaced from their original position; especially, the tendency to accelerate upward after being lifted. Instability is a prerequisite for severe weather - the greater the instability, the greater the potential for severe thunderstorms.
INSTBY
Instability- The tendency for air parcels to accelerate when they are displaced from their original position; especially, the tendency to accelerate upward after being lifted. Instability is a prerequisite for severe weather - the greater the instability, the greater the potential for severe thunderstorms.
Instrument Flight Rules
Refers to the general weather conditions pilots can expect at the surface and applies to the weather situations at an airport during which a pilot must use instruments to assist take off and landing. IFR conditions for fixed wing aircraft means the minimum cloud ceiling is greater than 500 feet and less than 1,000 feet and/or visibility is greater than 1 mile and less than 3 miles.
Instrument Shelter
A boxlike structure designed to protect temperature measuring instruments from exposure to direct sunshine, precipitation, and condensation, while at the same time time providing adequate ventilation.
Interbasin Transfer
In hydrologic terms, the physical transfer of water from one watershed to another.
Interception Storage Requirements
In hydrologic terms, water caught by plants at the onset of a rainstorm. This must be met before rainfall reaches the ground.
Intermediate Synoptic Times
The times of 0300, 0900, 1500, and 2100 UTC.
Intermittent Stream
In hydrological terms, a stream that flows periodically
Intraseasonal Oscillation
Oscillation with variability on a timescale less than a season. One example is the Madden-Julian Oscillation.
INTS
Intense
INTSFY
Intensify
INTST
Intensity
Inversion
(abbrev. INVRN) Generally, a departure from the usual increase or decrease in an atmospheric property with altitude. Specifically it almost always refers to a temperature inversion, i.e., an increase in temperature with height, or to the layer within which such an increase occurs. An inversion is present in the lower part of a cap.
Ionosphere
A complex atmospheric zone of ionized gases that extends between 50 and 400 miles (80 to 640 kilometers) above the earth's surface. It is located between the mesosphere and the exosphere and is included as part of the thermosphere.
Ionospheric Storm
A disturbance in the F region of the ionosphere, which occurs in connection with geomagnetic activity
Iridescence
Brilliant spots or borders of colors in clouds, usually red and green, caused by diffraction of light by small cloud particles. The phenomenon is usually observed in thin cirrus clouds within about 30° of the sun and is characterized by bands of color in the cloud that contour the cloud edges.
Iridescent Clouds
Clouds that exhibit brilliant bright spots, bands, or borders of colors, usually red and green, observed up to about 30 degrees from the sun. The coloration is due to the diffraction with small cloud particles producing the effect. It is usually seen in thin cirrostratus, cirrocumulus, and altocumulus clouds.
Isallobar
A line of equal change in atmospheric pressure during a specified time period.
Isentropic Analysis
A way in the forecaster can look at the atmosphere in 3-dimensions instead of looking at constant pressure surfaces (such as the 850 mb, 700 mb, 500 mb, etc.) which are in 2-dimensions. In this analysis method, the forecaster looks at constant potential temperature (the temperature that it would take if we compressed or expanded it adiabatically to the pressure of 1000 mb) surfaces. Air parcels move up and down these surfaces; therefore, the forecaster can see where the moisture is located and how much moisture is available.
Isentropic Lift
Lifting of air that is traveling along an upward-sloping isentropic surface.

Isentropic lift often is referred to erroneously as overrunning, but more accurately describes the physical process by which the lifting occurs. Situations involving isentropic lift often are characterized by widespread stratiform clouds and precipitation, but may include elevated convection in the form of embedded thunderstorms.
Isentropic Surface
A two-dimensional surface containing points of equal potential temperature.
Isobar
A line connecting points of equal pressure.
Isobaric Chart
A weather map representing conditions on a surface of equal atmospheric pressure. For example, a 500 mb chart will display conditions at the level of the atmosphere at which the atmospheric pressure is 500 mb. The height above sea level at which the pressure is that particular value may vary from one location to another at any given time, and also varies with time at any one location, so it does not represent a surface of constant altitude/height (i.e., the 500 mb level may be at a different height above sea level over Dallas than over New York).
Isobaric Process
Any thermodynamic change of state of a system that takes a place at constant pressure.
Isobath
In hydrologic terms, an imaginary line on the earth's surface or a line on a map connecting all points which are the same vertical distance above the upper or lower surface of a water-bearing formation or aquifer
Isochrone
A line on a chart connecting equal times of occurrence of an event. In a weather analysis, a sequence plotted on a map of the frontal positions at several different observation times would constitute a set of isochrones.
Isodop
A contour of constant Doppler velocity values.
Isodrosotherm
A line connecting points of equal dew point temperature.
Isoheight
Same as a contour depicting vertical height of some surface above a datum plane.
Isohel
A line on a weather map connecting points receiving equal sunlight.
Isohyet
A line connected points of equal precipitation amounts.
ISOL
Isolate(d)
Isolated
A National Weather Service convective precipitation descriptor for a 10 percent chance of measurable precipitation (0.01 inch). Isolated is used interchangeably with few.
ISOLD
Isolated
Isopleth
A broad term for any line on a weather map connecting points with equal values of a particular atmospheric variable (temperature, dew point, etc.). Isotherms, isotachs, etc. are all examples of isopleths.
Isotach
A line connecting points of equal wind speed.
Isotherm
A line connecting points of equal temperature.
Isotropic
Having the same characteristics in all directions, as with isotropic antennas. Directional or focused antennas are not isotropic.
Issuance Time
The time the product is transmitted.
ITWAS
Integrated Terminal Weather System
Jet Streak
Same as Jet Max; a point or area ("streak") of relative maximum wind speeds within a jet stream.
Jet Stream
(abbrev. JSTR) Relatively strong winds concentrated in a narrow stream in the atmosphere, normally referring to horizontal, high-altitude winds. The position and orientation of jet streams vary from day to day. General weather patterns (hot/cold, wet/dry) are related closely to the position, strength and orientation of the jet stream (or jet streams). A jet stream at low levels is known as a low-level jet.
Jet Stream Cirrus
A loose term for filamentous cirrus that appears to radiate from a point in the sky, and exhibits characteristics associated with strong vertical wind shear, such as twisted or curved filaments.
Jet Wind Speed Profile
A vertical wind speed profile characterized by a relatively narrow current of high winds with slower moving air above and below. A large wind (speed) shear occurs above and below the jet axis.
JSTR
Jet Stream - Relatively strong winds concentrated in a narrow stream in the atmosphere, normally referring to horizontal, high-altitude winds. The position and orientation of jet streams vary from day to day. General weather patterns (hot/cold, wet/dry) are related closely to the position, strength and orientation of the jet stream (or jet streams). A jet stream at low levels is known as a low-level jet.
K AMS
Cold Air Mass
Kelvin Temperature Scale
An absolute temperature scale in which a change of 1 Kelvin equals a change of 1 degree Celsius; 0ºK is the lowest temperature on the Kelvin scale. The freezing point of water is +273ºK (Kelvin) and the boiling point of +373ºK. It is used primarily for scientific purposes. It is also known as the Absolute Temperature Scale.
Kelvin Waves
Fluctuations in wind speed at the ocean surface at the Equator result in eastward propagating waves, known as Kelvin Waves. Kelvin Waves cause variations in the depth of the oceanic thermocline, the boundary between warm waters in the upper ocean and cold waters in the deep ocean. They play an important role in monitoring and predicting El Niño episodes.
Kelvin-Helmholtz Waves
Vertical waves in the air associated with wind shear across statically-stable regions. Can appear as breaking waves and as braided patterns in radar images and cloud photos.
Kilopascal
The internationally recognized unit used by the Atmospheric Environment Service for measuring atmospheric pressure. Abbreviated kPa.
Klystron
An electron tube used as a low-power oscillator or a high-power amplifier at ultrahigh frequencies.
Knuckles
Slang for lumpy protrusions on the edges, and sometimes the underside, of a thunderstorm anvil. They usually appear on the upwind side of a back-sheared anvil, and indicate rapid expansion of the anvil due to the presence of a very strong updraft. They are not mammatus clouds. See also cumuliform anvil and anvil rollover.
KTS
Knots
Lake Effect Snow
Snow showers that are created when cold, dry air passes over a large warmer lake, such as one of the Great Lakes, and picks up moisture and heat.
Lake Effect Snow Advisory
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when pure lake effect snow (this is where the snow is a direct result of lake effect snow and not because of a low pressure system) may pose a hazard or it is life threatening. The criteria for this advisory varies from area to area.
Lake Effect Snow Squall
A local, intense, narrow band of moderate to heavy snow squall that can extend long distances inland. It may persist for many hours. It may also be accompanied by strong, gusty, surface winds and possibly lightning. Accumulations can be 6 inches or more in 12 hours.
Lake Effect Snow Warning
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when pure lake effect snow (this is where the snow is a direct result of lake effect snow and not because of a synoptic storm or low pressure system) may pose a hazard or it is life threatening.
Lake Effect Storm
A fall or winter storm that produces heavy but localized precipitation as a result of temperature differences between the air over snow-covered ground and the air over the open waters of a lake.
Lakeshore Flood Advisory
See Coastal/Lakeshore Flood Advisory.
Lakeshore Flood Watch
See: COASTAL/LAKESHORE FLOOD WATCH
Lakeshore Flooding
See COASTAL/LAKESHORE FLOODING
LALs
(L)ightning (A)ctivity (L)evels.
LAL 1 - No thunderstorms.
LAL 2 - Few building cumulus with isolated thunderstorms.
LAL 3 - Much building cumulus with scattered thunderstorms. Light to moderate rain.
LAL 4 - Thunderstorms common. Moderate to heavy rain reaching the ground.
LAL 5 - Numerous thunderstorms. Moderate to heavy rain reaching the ground.
LAL 6 - Dry lightning (same as LAL 3 but without the rain).
Landspout
[Slang], a tornado that does not arise from organized storm-scale rotation and therefore is not associated with a wall cloud (visually) or a mesocyclone (on radar). Landspouts typically are observed beneath Cbs or towering cumulus clouds (often as no more than a dust whirl), and essentially are the land-based equivalents of waterspouts.
Lapse Rate
The rate of change of an atmospheric variable, usually temperature, with height. A steep lapse rate implies a rapid decrease in temperature with height (a sign of instability) and a steepening lapse rate implies that destabilization is occurring.
Large Scale
(Synoptic Scale) Size scale referring generally to weather systems with horizontal dimensions of several hundred miles or more. Most high and low pressure areas seen on weather maps are synoptic-scale systems.
Last Update
The time and date in which the forecast was issued or updated. The forecast may be updated at any time as weather conditions warrant.
Layer Composite Reflectivity Average
This WSR-88D radar product displays the average reflectivities for a layer. Data is taken from all elevation angles contained in a given layer for each grid box. It is available for 3 layers (low, mid, high). It is used to aid in determining storm intensity trends by comparing mid level layer composite products with a low level elevation angle base reflectivity product and aid in routing air traffic.
Layer Composite Reflectivity Maximum
This WSR-88D radar product displays the maximum reflectivities for a layer. Data is taken from all elevation angles contained in a given layer for each grid box. It is available for 3 layers (low, mid, high). Currently, the low layer extends from the surface to 24,000 feet, the mid layer extends from 24,000 feet to 33,000 feet, and high layer extends above 33,000 feet. It is used to aid in determining storm intensity trends by comparing mid level layer composite products with a low level elevation angle base reflectivity product and aid in routing air traffic.
LDS
Lightning Detection System
Leader Spot
In solar-terrestrial terms, in a magnetically bipolar or multipolar sunspot group, the western part precedes and the main spot in that part is called the leader.
Leeside Low
Extratropical cyclones that form on the downwind (lee) side of a mountain chain. In the United States, they frequently form on the eastern side of the Rockies and Sierra Nevadas.
Lentic System
In hydrologic terms, a nonflowing or standing body of fresh water, such as a lake or pond
Lifting Condensation Level
(LCL) - The level at which a parcel of moist air becomes saturated when it is lifted dry adiabatically.
Lightning Discharge
The series of electrical processes by which charge is transferred along a channel of high ion density between electrical charge centers of opposite sign. This can be between a cloud and the Earth's surface of a cloud-to-ground discharge.
Lightning Stroke
Any of a series of repeated electrical discharges comprising a single lightning discharge (strike). Specifically, in the case of a cloud-to-ground discharge, a leader plus its subsequent return streamer.
Line Source
An array of pollutant sources along a defined path that can be treated in dispersion models as an aggregate uniform release of pollutants along a line. Example: the sum of emissions from individual cars traveling down a highway can be treated as a line source. Compare area source and point source.
Lithosphere
In hydrologic terms, that part of the earth which is composed predominantly of rocks (either coherent or incoherent, and including the disintegrated rock materials known as soils and subsoils), together with everything in this rocky crust.
LLWS
Low Level Wind Shear
Loaded Gun (Sounding)
[Slang], a sounding characterized by extreme instability but containing a cap, such that explosive thunderstorm development can be expected if the cap can be weakened or the air below it heated sufficiently to overcome it.
Loop Prominence System
(abbrev. LPS) In solar-terrestrial terms, a system of loop prominences associated with major flares.
LOPRES
low pressure
Lotic System
In hydrologic terms, a flowing body of fresh water, such as a river or stream.
Low Pressure System
An area of a relative pressure minimum that has converging winds and rotates in the same direction as the earth. This is counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. Also known as an cyclone, it is the opposite of an area of high pressure, or a anticyclone.
Low Water Advisory
An advisory to describe water levels which are significantly below average levels over the Great Lakes, coastal marine zones, and any tidal marine area, waterway, or river inlet within or adjacent to a marine zone that would potentially be impacted by low water conditions creating a hazard to navigation.
LP Storm
Low-Precipitation storm (or Low-Precipitation supercell). A supercell thunderstorm characterized by a relative lack of visible precipitation. Visually similar to a classic supercell, except without the heavy precipitation core. LP storms often exhibit a striking visual appearance; the main tower often is bell-shaped, with a corkscrew appearance suggesting rotation. They are capable of producing tornadoes and very large hail. Radar identification often is difficult relative to other types of supercells, so visual reports are very important. LP storms almost always occur on or near the dry line, and thus are sometimes referred to as dry line storms.
LPS
Loop Prominence System- In solar-terrestrial terms, a system of loop prominences associated with major flares.
LSR
Local Storm Report. A product issued by local NWS offices to inform users of reports of severe and/or significant weather-related events
LST
Local Standard Time
LTST
latest
LVLS
levels
Lysimeter
In hydrologic terms, a device to measure the quantity or rate of downward water movement through a block of soil usually undisturbed, or to collect such percolated water for analysis as to quality
M2/S2
m2/s2 (meters squared per second squared), unit of measure equivalent to J/kg (joules per kilogram).
Mackeral Sky
The name given to cirrocumulus clouds with small vertical extent and composed of ice crystals. The rippled effect gives the appearance of fish scales.
Macroburst
A convective downdraft with an affected outflow area of at least 2½ miles wide and peak winds lasting between 5 and 20 minutes. Intense macrobursts may cause tornado-force damage of up to F3 intensity.
Macroscale
Large scale, characteristic of weather systems several hundred to several thousand kilometers in diameter.
Madden-Julian Oscillation
(abbrev. MJO)- Tropical rainfall exhibits strong variability on time scales shorter than the seasonal El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). These fluctuations in tropical rainfall often go through an entire cycle in 30-60 days, and are referred to as the Madden-Julian Oscillation or intraseasonal oscillations. The intraseasonal oscillations are a naturally occurring component of our coupled ocean-atmosphere system. They significantly affect the atmospheric circulation throughout the global Tropics and subtropics, and also strongly affect the wintertime jet stream and atmospheric circulation features over the North Pacific and western North America. As a result, they have an important impact on storminess and temperatures over the United States. During the summer these oscillations have a modulating effect on hurricane activity in both the Pacific and Atlantic basins.
Magnetopause
In solar-terrestrial terms, the boundary layer between the solar wind and the magnetosphere.
Magnetosphere
In solar-terrestrial terms, the magnetic cavity surrounding the earth, carved out of the passing solar wind by virtue of the geomagnetic field, which prevents, or at least impedes, the direct entry of the solar wind plasma into the cavity
Main Stem
In hydrologic terms, the reach of a river/stream formed by the tributaries that flow into it.
Main Synoptic Times
The times of 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC. Also known as the standard synoptic times.
Mammatus Clouds
Rounded, smooth, sack-like protrusions hanging from the underside of a cloud (usually a thunderstorm anvil). Mammatus clouds often accompany severe thunderstorms, but do not produce severe weather; they may accompany non-severe storms as well.
MARC Velocity Signature
A Doppler radar-velocity based precursor towards forecasting the initial onset of damaging straight-line winds in a linear Quasi_Linear Convective System (QLCS) or bowing convective system.
Mare's Trail
The name given to thin, wispy cirrus clouds composed of ice crystals that appear as veil patches or strands, often resembling a horse's tail.
Marginal Visual Flight Rules
(Abbrev. MVFR) - In an aviation product, refers to the general weather conditions pilots can expect at the surface. VFR stands for Visual Flight Rules and MVFR means Minimum or Marginal Visual Flight Rules. MVFR criteria means a ceiling between 1,000 and 3,000 feet and/or 3 to 5 miles visibility.
Marine Inversion
Temperature inversion produced when cold marine air underlies warmer air.
Marine Push
A replacement of the current air mass with air from off the ocean. Temperatures are much cooler and relative humidities much higher. The air mass is generally much more stable in this situation.
Marine Small Craft Thunderstorm Advisory
A marine warning issued by Environment Canada Atmospheric Environment Branch when the possibility of thunderstorms is greater than 40 percent.
Marine Small Craft Wind Warning
A marine warning issued by Environment Canada Atmospheric Environment Branch for winds which are forecasted to be in the 20-33 knot range inclusive.
Marine Weather Statement
A National Weather Service product to provide mariners with details on significant or potentially hazardous conditions not otherwise covered in existing marine warnings and forecasts. Marine weather statements are also used to supplement special marine warnings.
Maritime Air Mass
An air mass influenced by the sea. It is a secondary characteristic of an air mass classification, signified by the small "m" before the primary characteristic, which is based on source region. For example, mP is an air mass that is maritime polar in nature. Also known as a marine air mass.
Maritime Polar Air Mass
An air mass characterized by cold, moist air. Abbreviated mP.
Maritime Tropical Air Mass
An air mass characterized by warm, moist air. Abbreviated mT.
MARS
A voluntary marine observation program of the National Weather Service whereby U.S. Coast Guard Sector Stations report marine weather conditions from several shore locations within their operating area. The reports are in an abbreviated plain language format with fixed fields.
Massif
A compact portion of a mountain range, containing one or more summits.
Maximum Spillway Discharge
In hydrologic terms, spillway discharge (cfs) when reservoir is at maximum designed water surface elevation.
Maximum Sustained Surface Wind
When applied to a particular weather system, refers to the highest one-minute average wind (at an elevation of 10 meters with an unobstructed exposure) associated with that weather system at a particular point in time.
Maximum Unambiguous Range
The range from the radar at which an echo can be known unquestionably as being at that range. As the radar sends out a pulse of energy, the pulse hits a target and part of the energy bounces back to the radar, but part of the energy may continue to travel away from the radar. The distance to the target is computed by knowing the time that has elapsed since the pulse was emitted. Then a second pulse of energy is transmitted. If some of the energy from the first pulse strikes a target at a far range and returns to the radar when radiation from the second pulse arrives, the RDA misinterprets the returned first pulse as arriving from a target near the returned second pulse. The maximum unambiguous range is related to the amount of time that elapses between successive pulses of emitted energy.
Maximum Unambiguous Velocity
The highest radial velocity that can be measured unambiguously by a pulsed Doppler radar. The maximum unambiguous velocity is related to the radar's successive pulses of emitted energy. When a target's velocity exceeds the maximum unambiguous velocity, the velocity will be "folded" to appear as a different velocity.
MCS
Mesoscale Convective System. Mesoscale Convective System. A complex of thunderstorms which becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms, and normally persists for several hours or more. MCSs may be round or linear in shape, and include systems such as tropical cyclones, squall lines, and Mesoscale Convective Complexes (MCCs) (among others). MCS often is used to describe a cluster of thunderstorms that does not satisfy the size, shape, or duration criteria of an Mesoscale Convective Complex.
MDLS
models
Mean Sea Level
(MSL) - The arithmetic mean of hourly water elevations observed over a specific 19-year tidal epoch.
Measured Ceiling
A ceiling classification applied when the ceiling value has been determined by an instrument, such as a ceilometer or ceiling light, or by the known heights of unobscured portions of objects, other than natural landmarks, near the runway. See variable ceiling.
Medium Range Forecast (MRF)
A configuration of the National Water Model (NWM) that runs every 6 hours and produces 3-hourly deterministic forecasts of streamflow and hydrologic states for the contiguous United States (ConUS). This configuration is an ensemble forecast with 7 members; member 1 extends out to 10 days, while members 2-7 extend out to 8.5 days. Meteorological forcing data are drawn from the GFS.
Meniscus
In hydrologic terms, the curved surface of the liquid at the open end of a capillary column
MESO
Mesocyclone- A storm-scale region of rotation, typically around 2-6 miles in diameter and often found in the right rear flank of a supercell (or often on the eastern, or front, flank of an HP storm). The circulation of a mesocyclone covers an area much larger than the tornado that may develop within it. Properly used, mesocyclone is a radar term; it is defined as a rotation signature appearing on Doppler radar that meets specific criteria for magnitude, vertical depth, and duration. It will appear as a yellow solid circle on the Doppler velocity products. Therefore, a mesocyclone should not be considered a visually-observable phenomenon (although visual evidence of rotation, such as curved inflow bands, may imply the presence of a mesocyclone)
Mesoclimate
The climate of a small area of the earth's surface which may differ from the general climate of the district.
Mesocyclone
(abbrev. MESO)- A storm-scale region of rotation, typically around 2-6 miles in diameter and often found in the right rear flank of a supercell (or often on the eastern, or front, flank of an HP storm). The circulation of a mesocyclone covers an area much larger than the tornado that may develop within it. Properly used, mesocyclone is a radar term; it is defined as a rotation signature appearing on Doppler radar that meets specific criteria for magnitude, vertical depth, and duration. It will appear as a yellow solid circle on the Doppler velocity products. Therefore, a mesocyclone should not be considered a visually-observable phenomenon (although visual evidence of rotation, such as curved inflow bands, may imply the presence of a mesocyclone).
Mesohigh
A relatively small area of high atmospheric pressure that forms beneath a thunderstorm. It is usually associated with an MCS or its remnants.
Mesolow
(or Sub-synoptic Low) - A mesoscale low-pressure center. Severe weather potential often increases in the area near and just ahead of a mesolow. Mesolow should not be confused with mesocyclone, which is a storm-scale phenomenon.
Mesonet
A regional network of observing stations (usually surface stations) designed to diagnose mesoscale weather features and their associated processes.
Mesopause
The top of the mesosphere, corresponding to the level of minimum temperature in the atmosphere found at 70 to 80 km.
Mesoscale
Size scale referring to weather systems smaller than synoptic-scale systems but larger than storm-scale systems. Horizontal dimensions generally range from around 50 miles to several hundred miles. Squall lines, MCCs, and MCSs are examples of mesoscale weather systems
Mesoscale Convective Complex
(abbrev. MCC)- MCC - Mesoscale Convective Complex. A large Mesoscale Convective System (MCS), generally round or oval-shaped, which normally reaches peak intensity at night. The formal definition includes specific minimum criteria for size, duration, and eccentricity (i.e., "roundness"), based on the cloud shield as seen on infrared satellite photographs: * Size: Area of cloud top -32 degrees C or less: 100,000 square kilometers or more (slightly smaller than the state of Ohio), and area of cloud top -52 degrees C or less: 50,000 square kilometers or more. * Duration: Size criteria must be met for at least 6 hours. * Eccentricity: Minor/major axis at least 0.7. MCCs typically form during the afternoon and evening in the form of several isolated thunderstorms, during which time the potential for severe weather is greatest. During peak intensity, the primary threat shifts toward heavy rain and flooding.
Mesoscale Convective System
(MCS): A complex of thunderstorms which becomes organized on a scale larger than the individual thunderstorms, and normally persists for several hours or more. MCSs may be round or linear in shape, and include systems such as tropical cyclones, squall lines, and MCCs (among others). MCS often is used to describe a cluster of thunderstorms that does not satisfy the size, shape, or duration criteria of an MCC.
Mesoscale Discussion
When conditions actually begin to shape up for severe weather, SPC (Storm Prediction Center) often issues a Mesoscale Discussion (MCD) statement anywhere from roughly half an hour to several hours before issuing a weather watch. SPC also puts out MCDs for hazardous winter weather events on the mesoscale, such as locally heavy snow, blizzards and freezing rain (see below). MCDs are also issued on occasion for heavy rainfall, convective trends, and other phenomena, when the forecaster feels he/she can provide useful information that is not readily available or apparent to field forecasters. MCDs are based on mesoscale analysis and interpretation of observations and of short term, high resolution numerical model output.

The MCD basically describes what is currently happening, what is expected in the next few hours, the meteorological reasoning for the forecast, and when/where SPC plans to issue the watch (if dealing with severe thunderstorm potential). Severe thunderstorm MCDs can help you get a little extra lead time on the weather and allow you to begin gearing up operations before a watch is issued. The MCD begins with a numerical string that gives the LAT/LON coordinates of a polygon that loosely describes the area being discussed.
Mesoscale High Winds
These high winds usually follow the passage of organized convective systems and are associated with wake depressions or strong mesohighs.
Mesosphere
The atmospheric shell between about 20 km and about 70 to 80 km, extending from the top of the stratosphere (the stratopause) to the upper temperature minimum that defines the mesopause (the base of the thermosphere).
Meteorological Model Ensemble River Forecast (MMEFS)
An automated short-term hydrologic ensemble forecast system which utilizes temperature and precipitation output from the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) GEFS and NAEFS meteorological models as inputs to River Forecast Center hydrologic models.
Meteorologist
A person who studies meteorology. There are many different paths within the field of meteorology. For example, one could be a research meteorologist, radar meteorologist, climatologist, or operational meteorologist.
Microburst
A convective downdraft with an affected outflow area of less than 2½ miles wide and peak winds lasting less than 5 minutes. Microbursts may induce dangerous horizontal/vertical wind shears, which can adversely affect aircraft performance and cause property damage.
Microscale
Pertaining to meteorological phenomena, such as wind circulations or cloud patterns, that are less than 2 km in horizontal extent.
Microwave Burst
In solar-terrestrial terms, a radiowave signal associated with optical and/or X-ray flares
Mid-Latitude Areas
Areas between 30o and 60o north and south of the Equator.
Middle Clouds
(or Mid-Level Clouds) - A term used to signify clouds with bases between 6,500 and 23,000 feet. At the higher altitudes, they may also have some ice crystals, but they are composed mainly of water droplets. Altocumulus, altostratus, and nimbostratus are the main types of middle clouds. This altitude applies to the temperate zone. In the polar regions, these clouds may be found at lower altitudes. In the tropics, the defining altitudes for cloud types are generally higher.
Middle Latitudes
1) The latitude belt roughly between 35 and 65 degrees North and South. Also referred to as the temperate region.
or
2) With specific reference to zones of geomagnetic activity, "middle latitudes" refers to 20º to 50º geomagnetic
Mie Scattering
Any scattering produced by spherical particles whose diameters are greater than 1/10 the wavelength of the scattered radiation. This type of scattering causes the clouds to appear white in the sky. Often, hail exhibits in this type of scattering.
Minimum Discernible Signal
In a receiver, it is the smallest input signal that will a produce a detectable signal at the output. In radar terms, it is the minimal amount of back scattered energy that is required to produce a target on the radar screen. In other words, MDS is a measure of the radar's sensitivity.
MISC
Miscellaneous
MISG
Missing
Misoscale
The scale of meteorological phenomena that ranges in size from 40 meters to about 4 kilometers. It includes rotation within a thunderstorm.
Mist
A visible aggregate of minute water particles suspended in the atmosphere that reduces visibility to less than 7 statute miles, but greater than or equal to 5/8 statute miles. It does not reduce visibility as much as fog and is often confused with drizzle.
Mixing Heights
The height to which a parcel of air, or a column of smoke, will rise, mix or disperse. A column of smoke will remain trapped below this height.
Model Output Statistics
(abbrev. MOS) - the Hydrometeorological Center (HPC) produces a short range (6 to 60 hours) MOS (Model Output Statistics) guidance package generated from the NGM, GFS, and ETA models for over 300 individual stations in the continental United States. These alphanumeric messages are made available at approximately 0400 and 1600 UTC for the 0000 and 1200 UTC forecast cycles, respectively. Model Output Statistics are a set of statistical equations that use model output to forecast the probability of precipitation, high and low temperature, cloud cover, and precipitation amount for many cities across the USA. The statistical equations were specifically tailored for each location, taking into account factors such as each location's climate.
Moderate Risk (of severe thunderstorms)
Severe thunderstorms are expected to affect between 5 and 10 percent of the area. A moderate risk indicates the possibility of a significant severe weather episode. See high risk, slight risk, convective outlook.
Moist Adiabat
The line on a Skew T-Log P chart that depicts the change in temperature of saturated air as it rises and undergoes cooling due to adiabatic expansion. As saturated air rises, the temperature changes at a rate of 0.55 degrees Celsius per 100 meters (2-3 degrees Fahrenheit per 1,000 feet). Contrast with a dry adiabat.
Moist Adiabatic Lapse Rate
(abbrev. MALR)- The rate at which the temperature of a parcel of saturated air decreases as the parcel is lifted in the atmosphere. The moist adiabatic lapse rate (abbreviated MALR) is not a constant like the dry adiabatic lapse rate but is dependent on parcel temperature and pressure.
Moist-adiabatic
(Also known as saturation-adiabatic process.) An adiabatic process for which the air is saturated and may contain liquid water. A distinction is made between the reversible process, in which total water is conserved, and the pseudoadiabatic or irreversible moist adiabatic process, in which liquid water is assumed to be removed as soon as it is condensed.
Moisture
Refers to the water vapor content in the atmosphere, or the total water, liquid, solid or vapor, in a given volume of air.
Moisture Advection
Transport of moisture by horizontal winds.
Moisture Convergence
A measure of the degree to which moist air is converging into a given area, taking into account the effect of converging winds and moisture advection. Areas of persistent moisture convergence are favored regions for thunderstorm development, if other factors (e.g., instability) are favorable.
Moisture Equivalent
In hydrologic terms, the ratio of the weight of water which the soil, after saturation, will retain against a centrifugal force 1,000 times the force of gravity, to the weight of the soil when dry. The ratio is stated as a percentage.
Moisture Ridge
An axis of relatively high dew point values. This axis is sometimes referred to as a 'moist tongue'.
Monitor Stage
The stage which, when reached by a rising stream, represents the level where appropriate officials (e.g., county sheriff, civil defense officials, or bypass gate operators) are notified of the threat of possible flooding. (Used if different from action stage, and at the discretion of the WFO or river forecast center [RFC].) The term "alert stage" is to be used instead of warning stage. Monitor stage or caution stage may be used instead of alert stage in some parts of the country. see/ alert stage/.
Monostatic Radar
A radar that uses a common antenna for both transmitting and receiving.
Monsoon
A thermally driven wind arising from differential heating between a land mass and the adjacent ocean that reverses its direction seasonally.
MOS
Model Output Statistics - the Hydrometeorological Center (HPC) produces a short range (6 to 60 hours) MOS guidance package generated from the NGM, GFS, and ETA models for over 300 individual stations in the continental United States. These alphanumeric messages are made available at approximately 0400 and 1600 UTC for the 0000 and 1200 UTC forecast cycles, respectively. Model Output Statistics are a set of statistical equations that use model output to forecast the probability of precipitation, high and low temperature, cloud cover, and precipitation amount for many cities across the USA. The statistical equations were specifically tailored for each location, taking into account factors such as each location's climate.
Mostly Clear
When the 1/8th to 2/8ths of the sky is covered by with opaque (not transparent) clouds. Sometimes referred to as Mostly Sunny if this condition is present during daylight hours.
Mostly Cloudy
When the 6/8th to 7/8ths of the sky is covered by with opaque (not transparent) clouds. Same as Considerable Cloudiness.
Mostly Sunny
When the 1/8th to 2/8ths of the sky is covered by with opaque (not transparent) clouds Same as Mostly Clear, except only applicable during daylight hours.
Mount Wilson Magnetic Classifications
In solar-terrestrial terms, a classification system for sunspots:
  • Alpha: Denotes a unipolar sunspot group.
  • Beta: A sunspot group having both positive and negative magnetic polarities, with a simple and distinct division between the polarities.
  • Beta-Gamma: A sunspot group that is bipolar but in which no continuous line can be drawn separating spots of opposite polarities.
  • Delta: A complex magnetic configuration of a solar sunspot group consisting of opposite polarity umbrae within the same penumbra.
  • Gamma: A complex active region in which the positive and negative polarities are so irregularly distributed as to prevent classification as a bipolar group.
Mountain Wind System
The system of diurnal winds that forms in a complex terrain area, consisting of mountain-plain, along-valley, cross-valley and slope wind systems.
Mountain-Plain Wind System
A closed, large-scale, thermally driven circulation between the mountains and the surrounding plain. The mountain-to-plain flow making up the lower branch of the closed circulation usually occurs during nighttime, while the plain-to-mountain flow occurs during daytime.
MSG
Message
MSL
Mean sea level
MSL
(Mean Sea Level) - The arithmetic mean of hourly water elevations observed over a specific 19-year tidal epoch.
MSLP
Mean sea level pressure
MST
Mountain Standard Time
MSTLY
Mostly
MSTR
Moisture
MTNS
Mountains
MTS
Mountains
Mud Slide
Fast moving soil, rocks and water that flow down mountain slopes and canyons during a heavy downpour of rain.
Multi-Radar Multi-Sensor (MRMS)
An automated system that rapidly and intelligently integrates data from multiple radars and radar networks, surface observations, numerical weather prediction (NWP) models, and climatology to generate seamless, high spatio-temporal resolution mosaics.
Multicell Thunderstorm
These thunderstorms are organized in clusters of at least 2-4 short-lived cells. Each cell generates a cold air outflow and these individual outflows combine to form a large gust front. Convergence along the gust front causes new cells to develop every 5 to 15 minutes. The cells move roughly with the mean wind. However, the area (storm) motion usually deviates significantly from the mean wind due to discrete propagation (new cell development) along the gust front. The multicellular nature of the storm is usually apparent on radar with multiple reflectivity cores and maximum tops.
Multiple Doppler Analysis
The use of more than one radar (and hence more than one look angle) to reconstruct spatial distributions of the 2D or 3D wind field, which cannot be measured from a single radar alone. Includes dual Doppler, triple Doppler, and overdetermined multiple Doppler analysis.
Multipurpose Reservoir
In hydrologic terms, a reservoir constructed and equipped to provide storage and release of water for two or more purposes such as flood control, power development, navigation, irrigation, recreation, pollution abatement, domestic water supply, etc.
Municipal Use of Water
In hydrologic terms, the various uses to which water is put to use developed urban areas, including domestic use, industrial use, street sprinkling, fire protection, etc.
Mushroom
Slang for a thunderstorm with a well-defined anvil rollover, and thus having a visual appearance resembling a mushroom.
MVS
Moves
MWS
Marine Weather Statement
Nacreous Clouds
Clouds of unknown composition that have a soft, pearly luster and that form at altitudes about 25 to 30 km above the Earth's surface. They are also called "mother-of-the-pearl clouds."
Nanotesla (nT)
A unit of magnetism equal to 10-9 tesla, equivalent to a gamma (10-5 gauss).
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
In the United States, national standards for the ambient concentrations in air of different air pollutants designed to protect human health and welfare.
National Blend of Models (NBM)
The National Blend of Models (NBM) is a nationally consistent and skillful suite of calibrated forecast guidance based on a blend of both NWS and non-NWS numerical weather prediction model data and post-processed model guidance.
National Digital Forecast Database
(NDFD)- The National Weather Service's NDFD provides access to gridded forecasts of sensible weather elements (e.g., wind, wave height) through the National Digital Forecast Database (NDFD). NDFD contains a seamless mosaic of digital forecasts from NWS field offices working in collaboration with the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). The database is made available to all customers and partners from the public, private and academic sectors. Those customers and partners may use this data to create a wide range of text, graphic, gridded and image products of their own.
National Fire Danger Rating System
A uniform fire danger rating system used in the United States that focuses on the environmental factors that impact the moisture content of fuels. Fire danger is rated daily over large administrative areas, such as national forests.
National Flood Summary
This NWS daily product (abbreviated FLN) contains nationwide information on current flood conditions. It is issued by the Hydrometeorological Information Center of the Office of Hydrology.
National Hurricane Operations Plan
(NHOP) - The NHOP is issued annually by the Federal Coordinator for Meteorological Services and Supporting Research. It documents interdepartmental agreements relating to tropical cyclone observing, warning, and forecasting services. National Hurricane Center (NHC), Central Pacific Hurricane Center (CPHC), and the JTWC serve as the principal offices in coordinating the day-to-day activities of the NWS in support of the Plan in their region of responsibility.
National Hydrologic Discussion (NHD)
A discussion of the current and forecast hydrologic conditions across the nation, including a variety of short and medium range (Days 1-10) observed and modeled hydrologic guidance.
National Severe Storms Laboratory
This is one of NOAA's internationally known Environmental Research Laboratories, leading the way in investigations of all aspects of severe weather. Headquartered in Norman OK with staff in Colorado, Nevada, Washington, Utah, and Wisconsin, the people of NSSL, in partnership with the National Weather Service, are dedicated to improving severe weather warnings and forecasts in order to save lives and reduce property damage.
National Water Model Medium-Range Forecast (NWM MRF)
A 10-day streamflow forecast for the over 3.6 million waterway miles across the Nation, forced by the GFS and updated every 6 hours.
National Water Model Short-Range Forecast (NWM SRF)
An 18-hour streamflow forecast for the over 3.4 million waterway miles across the Nation, forced by the HRRR and updated hourly.
National Weather and Crop Summary
A product of the National Agricultural Statistics Service, Agricultural Statistics Board, and U.S. Department of Agriculture. It contains weekly national agricultural weather summaries, including the weather's effect on crops; summaries and farm progress for 44 states and New England area.
Nautical Dusk
The time at which the sun is 12 degrees below the horizon in the evening. At this time, objects are no longer distinguishable.
Navigation Methods
In hydrologic terms, there are three basic methods of providing and managing inland waterways -
1) Run-of-the-River: no provision of upstream storage;
2) Slack-Water: locks and dams provide slack water or pools with adequate depth for the draft of heavy barges and area to prevent excessive velocities;
3) Canalization: in lieu of a series of dams on the river a canal with locks adjoins the river.
NAVTEX Forecast
(NAV) - A National Weather Service marine forecast combining various Coastal Waters and Offshore forecasts, optimized to accommodate transmission via NAVTEX.
Nearshore Forecast
(NSH) - National Weather Service seasonal marine forecasts for an areas of the Great Lakes extending from a line approximating mean low water datum along the coast or an island, including bays, harbors, and sounds, out to 5 nm. These forecasts are normally issued from Daylight Savings Time ~April 7 through December 31, though the dates may be shortened or extended based on local/regional requirements.
NESDIS
National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service. NESDIS collects, processes, stores, analyzes, and disseminates various types of hydrologic, meteorologic, and oceanic data. NESDIS is also responsible for the development of analytical and descriptive products so as to meet the needs of it’s users.
Neutral Stability
An atmospheric condition that exists in unsaturated air when the environmental lapse rate equals the dry adiabatic rate, or in saturated air when the environmental lapse rate equals the moist adiabatic rate.
Nimbostratus
(abbrev. NS)- A cloud of the class characterized by a formless layer that is almost uniformly dark gray; a rain cloud of the layer type, of low altitude, usually below 8000 ft (2400 m).
NMRS
Numerous
Noctilucent Clouds
Wavy, thin, bluish-white clouds that are best seen at twilight in polar latitudes. They form at altitudes about 80 to 90 km above the Earth's surface.
Nocturnal Inversion
Used interchangably with Radiational Inversion; a temperature inversion that develops during the night as a result of radiational cooling of the surface. Because the immediate surface (lower Boundary Layer) cools much more rapidly during radiational cooling conditions than the air just above (upper Boundary Layer), a temperature inversion can be created overnight, but typically erodes quickly after sunrise.
Nocturnal Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms which develop after sunset. They are often associated with the strengthening of the low level jet and are most common over the Plains states. They also occur over warm water and may be associated with the seaward extent of the overnight land breeze.
NOGAPS
Navy Operational Global Atmospheric Prediction System; a 144-hour numerical model of the atmosphere run by the U.S. Navy twice daily.
NOHRSC
In hydrologic terms, the National Operational Hydrologic Remote Sensing Center. An organization under the National Weather Service Office of Hydrology (OH) that mainly deals with snow mapping.
Non-Uniform Sky Condition
A localized sky condition which varies from that reported in the body of the report.
Non-Uniform Visibility
A localized visibility which varies from that reported in the body of the report.
Normal Water Surface Elevation
In hydrologic terms, the lowest crest level of overflow on a reservoir with a fixed overflow level (spillway crest elevation). For a reservoir whose outflow is controlled wholly or partly by movable gates, siphons, or other means, it is the maximum level to which water may rise under normal operating conditions, exclusive of any provision for flood surcharge.
North American Ensemble Forecast System (NAEFS)
An atmospheric ensemble of 20 members each from the NCEP GEFS and CMC EPS ensemble systems.
North American Mesoscale Forecast System (NAM)
One of the major weather models run by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) for producing weather forecasts.
North Atlantic Oscillation
(Abbrev. NAO) - the NAO is a large-scale fluctuation in atmospheric pressure between the subtropical high pressure system located near the Azores in the Atlantic Ocean and the sub-polar low pressure system near Iceland and is quantified in the NAO Index. The surface pressure drives surface winds and wintertime storms from west to east across the North Atlantic affecting climate from New England to western Europe as far eastward as central Siberia and eastern Mediterranean and southward to West Africa.
Northern Lights
Common name for Aurora Borealis; the luminous, radiant emission from the upper atmosphere over middle and high latitudes, and centred around the earth's magnetic poles. These silent fireworks are often seen on clear winter nights in a variety of shapes and colours.
Nor\'easter
A strong low pressure system that affects the Mid Atlantic and New England States. It can form over land or over the coastal waters. These winter weather events are notorious for producing heavy snow, rain, and tremendous waves that crash onto Atlantic beaches, often causing beach erosion and structural damage. Wind gusts associated with these storms can exceed hurricane force in intensity. A nor'easter gets its name from the continuously strong northeasterly winds blowing in from the ocean ahead of the storm and over the coastal areas.
Nowcast
A short-term weather forecast, generally out to six hours or less. This is also called a Short Term Forecast.
NS
Nimbostratus- A cloud of the class characterized by a formless layer that is almost uniformly dark gray; a rain cloud of the layer type, of low altitude, usually below 8000 ft (2400 m).
NSSFC
National Severe Storm Forecast Center
NSSL
National Severe Storms Laboratory - this is one of NOAA's internationally known Environmental Research Laboratories, leading the way in investigations of all aspects of severe weather. Headquartered in Norman OK with staff in Colorado, Nevada, Washington, Utah, and Wisconsin, the people of NSSL, in partnership with the National Weather Service, are dedicated to improving severe weather warnings and forecasts in order to save lives and reduce property damage.
Numerical Forecasting
A computer forecast or prediction based on equations governing the motions and the forces affecting motion of fluids. The equations are based, or initialized, on specified weather or climate conditions at a certain place and time.
Numerous
A National Weather Service convective precipitation descriptor for a 60 or 70 percent chance of measurable precipitation (0.01 inch).
NWS
National Weather Service. An agency of the Federal Government within the Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which is responsible for providing observations, forecasts and warnings of meteorological and hydrological events in the interest of national safety and economy.
NWSH
National Weather Service Headquarters
NWSO
National Weather Service Office
OBS
Observation(s)
OBSC
Obscure
Obscuration
Any atmospheric phenomenon, except clouds, that restricts vertical visibility (e.g., dust, rain, snow, etc.).
Obscuring Phenomena
Any atmospheric phenomenon, except clouds, that restricts vertical visibility (e.g., dust, rain, snow, etc.).
Observation Well
In hydrologic terms, a non-pumping well used for observing the elevation of the water table or piezometric surface
Occluded Mesocyclone
A mesocyclone in which air from the rear-flank downdraft has completely enveloped the circulation at low levels, cutting off the inflow of warm unstable low-level air.
Office of Global Programs
The Office of Global Programs (OGP) sponsors focused scientific research, within approximately eleven research elements, aimed at understanding climate variability and its predictability. Through studies in these areas, researchers coordinate activities that jointly contribute to improved predictions and assessments of climate variability over a continuum of timescales from season to season, year to year, and over the course of a decade and beyond.
Offshore Breeze
A wind that blows from the land towards a body of water. Also known as a land breeze.
Offshore Flow
Occurs when air moves from land to sea, and is usually associated with dry weather.
Offshore Waters
That portion of the oceans, gulfs, and seas beyond the coastal waters extending to a specified distance from the coastline, to a specified depth contour, or covering an area defined by specific latitude and longitude points.
Offshore Waters Forecast
(OFF) - A National Weather Service marine forecast product for that portion of the oceans, gulfs, and seas beyond the coastal waters extending to a specified distance from the coastline, to a specified depth contour, or covering an area defined by specific latitude and longitude points.
OFSHR
Offshore
Onshore Breeze
A wind that blows from a body of water towards the land. Also known as a seabreeze
Onshore Flow
Occurs when air moves from sea to land, and is usually associated wtih increased moisture.
Open Lakes Forecast
(GLF) - A National Weather Service marine forecast product for the U.S. waters within a Great Lake not including the waters covered by an existing Nearshore Waters Forecast (NSH). When the seasonal Nearshore forecast is not issued, the Open Lake forecast includes a forecast of nearshore waters.
Operational Products
A product that has been fully tested and evaluated and is produced on a regular and ongoing basis.
Orographic Waves
A wavelike airflow produced over and in the lee of a mountain barrier.
Oscillation
A shift in position of various high and low pressure systems that in climate terms is usually defined as an index (i.e., a single numerically-derived number, that represents the distribution of temperature and pressure over a wide ocean area, such as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation, North Atlantic Oscillation, and Pacific Decadal Oscillation).
Outlet Discharge Structure
In hydrologic terms, protects the downstream end of the outlet pipe from erosion and is often designed to slow down the velocity of released water to prevent erosion of the stream channel
Overcast
(Abbrev. OVC)- An official sky cover classification for aviation weather observations, when the sky is completely covered by an obscuring phenomenon. This is applied only when obscuring phenomenon aloft are present--that is, not when obscuring phenomenon are surface-based, such as fog.
Overshooting Top
(or Penetrating Top) - A dome-like protrusion above a thunderstorm anvil, representing a very strong updraft and hence a higher potential for severe weather with that storm. A persistent and/or large overshooting top (anvil dome) often is present on a supercell.

A short-lived overshooting top, or one that forms and dissipates in cycles, may indicate the presence of a pulse storm.
Ozone Advisory
It is issued by the Department of Natural Resources (DNR) through the National Weather Service when ozone levels reach 100. Ozone levels above 100 are unhealthy for people with heat and/or respiratory ailments.
Pacific Decadal Oscillation
(Abbrev. PDO) - a recently described pattern of climate variation similar to ENSO though on a timescale of decades and not seasons. It is characterized by SST anomalies of one sign in the north-central Pacific and SST anomalies of another sign to the north and east near the Aleutians and the Gulf of Alaska. It primarily affects weather patterns and sea surface temperatures in the Pacific Northwest, Alaska, and northern Pacific Islands.
Palmer Drought Severity Index
(Abbrev. PDSI) - an index used to gage the severity of drought conditions by using a water balance equation to track water supply and demand. This index is calculated weekly by the National Weather Service.
Partial-Duration Flood Series
In hydrologic terms, a list of all flood peaks that exceed a chosen base stage or discharge, regardless of the number of peaks occurring in a year.
Partly Sunny
Between 3/8 and 5/8 of the sky is covered by clouds. The term "Partly Sunny" is used only during daylight hours.
Pascal
The unit of pressure produced when one newton acts on one square meter (1 N/m2). It is abbreviated Pa.
PC-GRIDDS
PC-Gridded Interactive Display and Diagnostic System - Allows the forecaster to view fields of gridded model output in contour or vector format. By doing this, the forecaster can extract relevant information from the numerical model grid-point data.
PDS
Particularly Dangerous Situation (PDS) wording is used in rare situations when long-lived, strong and violent tornadoes are possible. This enhanced wording may also accompany severe thunderstorm watches for intense convective wind storms.
PDS Watch
The Particularly Dangerous Situation (PDS) wording is used in rare situations when long-lived, strong and violent tornadoes are possible. This enhanced wording may also accompany severe thunderstorm watches for intense convective wind storms.
PDSI
Palmer Drought Severity Index - an index used to gage the severity of drought conditions by using a water balance equation to track water supply and demand. This index is calculated weekly by the National Weather Service.
Peak Discharge
In hydrologic terms, the rate of discharge of a volume of water passing a given location
Peak Gust
The highest instantaneous wind speed observed or recorded.
Peak Pulse
The amount of power transmitted by a radar during a given pulse. Note that because these pulses are widely spaced, the average power will be much smaller.
Peak Wind Speed
The maximum instantaneous wind speed since the last observation that exceeded 25 knots.
Perennial Stream
In hydrologic terms, a stream that flows all year round.
Permafrost
A layer of soil at varying depths below the surface in which the temperature has remained below freezing continuously from a few to several thousands of years.
Persistence
Continuation of existing conditions. When a physical parameter varies slowly, the best prediction is often persistence
Persistence Forecast
A forecast that the current weather condition will persist and that future weather will be the same as the present (e.g., if it is raining today, a forecast predicting rain tonight).
Pervious Zone
In hydrologic terms, a part of the cross section of an embankment dam comprising material of high permeability
Photochemical Smog
Air pollution containing ozone and other reactive chemical compounds formed by the reaction of nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons in the presence of sunlight.
Photosphere
The intensely bright portion of the sun visible to the unaided eye; the "surface" of the sun. Reaching temperatures estimated at about 11,000 degrees Fahrenheit, it is the portion of the sun's atmosphere which emits continuous electromagnetic radiation.
Plan Position Indicator
An acronym for Plan Position Indicator. A PPI displays radar data horizontally using a map projection. In PPI mode, the radar makes a 360-degree sweep with the antenna at a specific elevation angle. A PPI display is the familiar radar display shown on the television weather programs.
Plasma
Any ionized gas; that is, any gas containing ions and electrons.
PNS
Public Information Statement - a narrative statement issued by a National Weather Service Forecast Office that can be used for:

1) A current or expected nonhazardous event of general interest to the public that can usually be covered with a single message (e.g., unusual atmospheric phenomena such as sun dogs, halos, rainbows, aurora borealis, lenticular clouds, and stories about a long-term dry/cold/wet/warm spell).

2) Public educational information and activities, such as storm safety rules, awareness activities, storm drills, etc.

3) Information regarding service changes, service limitations, interruptions due to reduced or lost power or equipment outages, or special information clarifying interpretation of NWS data. For example, this product may be used to inform users of radar equipment outages or special information clarifying interpretation of radar data originating from an unusual source which may be mistaken for precipitation (such as chaff drops, smoke plumes, etc., that produces echoes on the radar display.
Point Source
A pollutant source that can be treated in a dispersion model as though pollutants were emitted from a single point that is fixed in space. Example: the mouth of a smokestack. Compare area source and line source.
Polar Cap Absorption (PCA)
In solar-terrestrial terms, an anomalous condition of the polar ionosphere whereby HF and VHF (3 - 300 MHz) radiowaves are absorbed, and LF and VLF (3 - 300 kHz) radiowaves are reflected at lower altitudes than normal. In practice, the absorption is inferred from the proton flux at energies greater than 10 MeV, so that PCAs and proton events are simultaneous. Transpolar radio paths may still be disturbed for days, up to weeks, following the end of a proton event.
Polar Jet Stream
Used interchangably with Polar Jet; a jet stream marked by a concentration of isotherms and strong vertical shear, this jet is the boundary between the polar air and the subtropical air. It often divides into two branches, the north and the south, and marks the high speed core of the prevailing westerlies. It is associated with the location and motion of the high and low pressure areas of the middle latitudes, and therefore, is variable in position, elevation, and wind speed. Its position tends to migrate south in the Northern Hemispheric winter and north in the summer, and its core winds increase during the winter and become less strong in the summer.
Polar Orbiting Satellite
A weather satellite which travels over both poles each time it orbits the Earth. It orbits about 530 miles (850 km) above the Earth's surface. A satellite with an orbit nearly parallel to the earth's meridian lines which crosses the polar regions on each orbit.
POPS
Probability of Precipitation
Porosity
In hydrologic terms,
(1) The ratio of pore volume to total volume of the formation. Sandy soils have large pores and a higher porosity than clays and other fine-grained soils.
(2) An index of the void characteristics of a soil or stream as pertaining to percolation; degree of previousness.
POS
Positive
Positive Area
The area on a sounding representing the layer in which a lifted parcel would be warmer than the environment; thus, the area between the environmental temperature profile and the path of the lifted parcel. Positive area is a measure of the energy available for convection; see CAPE.
Positive Cloud to Ground Lightning
A CG flash that delivers positive charge to the ground, as opposed to the more common negative charge. Positive CGs have been found to occur more frequently in some severe thunderstorms. Their occurrence is detectable by most lightning detection networks, but visually it is not considered possible to distinguish between a positive CG and a negative CG. (Some claim to have observed a relationship between staccato lightning and positive CGs, but this relationship is as yet unproven.)
Positive Vorticity Advection
(Abbrev. PVA) - Advection of higher values of vorticity into an area, which often is associated with upward motion (lifting) of the air. PVA typically is found in advance of disturbances aloft (i.e., shortwaves), and is a property which often enhances the potential for thunderstorm development.
Positive-tilt Trough
An upper level system which is tilted to the east with increasing latitude (i.e., from southwest to northeast). A positive-tilt trough often is a sign of a weakening weather system, and generally is less likely to result in severe weather than a negative-tilt trough if all other factors are equal.
Post-Flare Loops
In solar-terrestrial terms, a loop prominence system often seen after a major two-ribbon flare, which bridges the ribbons.
Post-storm Report
A report issued by a local National Weather Service office summarizing the impact of a tropical cyclone on it's forecast area. These reports include information on observed winds, pressures, storm surges, rainfall, tornadoes, damage and casualties.
Powder Snow
Dry, loose, unconsolidated snow.
Pre-Frontal Squall Line
A line of thunderstorms that precedes an advancing cold front.
Pre-Hurricane Squall Line
It is often the first serious indication that a hurricane is approaching. It is a generally a straight line and resembles a squall-line that occurs with a mid-latitude cold front. It is as much as 50 miles or even more before the first ragged rain echoes of the hurricane's bands and is usually about 100 to 200 miles ahead of the eye, but it has been observed to be as much as 500 miles ahead of the eye in the largest hurricanes.
Precipitation Processing System
The WSR-88D system that generates 1-hour running, 3-hourly, and running storm total precipitation accumulations. Five functional steps are performed to calculate the best estimate of precipitation: 1) development of a sectorized hybrid scan, 2) conversion to precipitation rate, 3) precipitation accumulation, 4) adjustment using rain gages, 5) product update.
Precision
The accuracy with which a number can be represented, i.e., the number of digits used to represent a number.
PRES
Pressure
Prescribed Fire
A management ignited or natural wildland fire that burns under specified conditions where the fire is confined to a predetermined area and produces the fire behavior and fire characteristics required to attain planned fire treatment and resource management objectives.
Present Movement
The best estimate of the movement of the center of a tropical cyclone at a given time and given position. This estimate does not reflect the short-period, small scale oscillations of the cyclone center.
Present Weather
The type of weather observed at the reporting time. These conditions may include types and intensity of precipitation such as light rain or heavy snow, as well as the condition of the air environment such as foggy, hazy or blowing dust.
Pressure
The exertion of force upon a surface by a fluid (e.g., the atmosphere) in contact with it.
Pressure Altimeter
An aneroid barometer calibrated to indicate altitude in feet instead of units of pressure. It is read accurately only in a standard atmosphere and when the correct altimeter setting is used.
Pressure Altitude
The altitude in standard atmosphere at which a given pressure will be observed. It is the indicated altitude of a pressure altimeter at an altitude setting of 29.92 inches of mercury, and is therefore the indicated altitude above the 29.92 constant pressure surface.
Pressure Change
The net difference between the barometric pressure at the beginning and ending of a specified interval of time, usually the three hour period preceding an observation.
Pressure Characteristic
The pattern of the pressure change during the specified period of time, usually the three hour period preceding an observation. This is recorded in three categories: falling, rising, or steady.
Pressure Couplet
It is an area where you have a high pressure area located adjacent to a low pressure area.
Pressure Falling Rapidly
A decrease in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of mercury or more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.
Pressure Gage
A device for registering the pressure of solids, liquids, or gases. It may be graduated to register pressure in any units desired.
Pressure Gradient
The amount of pressure change occurring over a given distance.
Pressure Gradient Force
A three-dimensional force vector operating in the atmosphere that accelerates air parcels away from regions of high pressure and toward regions of low pressure in response to an air pressure gradient. Usually resolved into vertical and horizontal components.
Pressure Head
Energy contained by fluid because of its pressure, usually expressed in feet of fluid (foot pounds per pound).
Pressure Ice
Floating sea, river, or lake ice that has been deformed, altered, or forced upward in pressure ridges by the lateral stresses of any combination of wind, water currents, tides, waves, and surf.
Pressure Induced Wave
A rare type of wave that does not develop from wind or seismic activity. Instead, these waves develop as a pressure perturbation moves over the water surface. The water surface adjusts to account for the atmospheric pressure change. As atmospheric pressure decreases, the force exerted upward by the water increases, creating a pressure induced wave.
Pressure Jump
A sudden, sharp increase in atmospheric pressure, typically occurring along an active front and preceding a storm.
Pressure Rising Rapidly
An increase in station pressure at a rate of 0.06 inch of mercury or more per hour which totals 0.02 inch or more.
Pressure Tendency
The character and amount of atmospheric pressure change during a specified period of time, usually 3-hour period preceding an observation.
Pressure Unsteady
A pressure that fluctuates by 0.03 inch of mercury or more from the mean pressure during the period of measurement.
Pressure-driven Channeling
Channeling of wind in a valley by synoptic-scale pressure gradients superimposed along the valley's axis. Compare forced channeling.
Prevailing Visibility
The visibility that is considered representative of conditions at the station; the greatest distance that can be seen throughout at least half the horizon circle, not necessarily continuous.
Prevailing Westerlies
The westerly winds that dominant in middle latitudes.
Prevailing Winds
A wind that consistently blows from one direction more than from any other.
Prevention of Significant Deterioration
A program, specified in the Clean Air Act, whose goal is to prevent air quality from deteriorating significantly in areas of the country that are presently meeting the ambient air quality standards.
Primary Ambient Air Quality Standards
Air quality standards designed to protect human health.
Primary Control Tide Station
A tide station where continuous observations have been made for a minimum of 19 years. Its purpose is to provide data for computing accepted values essential to tide predictions and for determining tidal datums for coastal and marine boundaries. The data series from primary control tide stations serves as a primary control for the reduction of tidal datum for subordinate tide stations with a shorter period of record. The 19 year period is the official tidal epoch for calculating tidal datums.
Primary Swell Direction
Prevailing direction of swell propagation.
Probability Forecast
A forecast of the probability that one or more of a mutually exclusive set of weather conditions will occur.
Probability of Thunderstorms
The probability based on climatology that a thunderstorm will be reported at that location during a specified period of time.
Product Resolution
The smallest spatial increment or data element that is distinguishable in a given Doppler radar product.
Prognostic Discussion
This Hydrometeorological Prediction Center (HPC) discussion may include analysis of numerical and statistical models, meteorological circulation patterns and trends, and confidence factors. Reference is usually made to the manually produced 6- to 10-day Northern Hemisphere prognoses for mean 500 millibar heights and mean 500 millibar height anomalies. Discussions may also refer to the method of operational ensemble predictions.
Progressive Derecho
Derecho characterized by a short curved squall line oriented nearly perpendicular to the mean wind direction with a bulge in the general direction of the mean flow. Downburst activity occurs along the bulging portion of the line. This type of derecho typically occurs in the warm season (May through August) and is most frequent in a zone extending from eastern South Dakota to the upper Ohio Valley. The severe wind storms typically begin during the afternoon and continue into the evening hours. Several hours typically pass between initial convection and the first wind damage report.
PRST
Persist
PSBL
Possible
PSBLY
possibly
Pseudo-Cold Front
A boundary between a supercell's inflow region and the rear-flank downdraft (or RFD). It extends outward from the mesocyclone center, usually toward the south or southwest (but occasionally bows outward to the east or southeast in the case of an occluded mesocyclone), and is characterized by advancing of the downdraft air toward the inflow region. It is a particular form of gust front.
Pseudo-Warm Front
A boundary between a supercell's inflow region and the forward-flank downdraft (or FFD). It extends outward from at or near the mesocyclone center, usually toward the east or southeast, and normally is either nearly stationary or moves northward or northeastward ahead of the mesocyclone.
PSG
Passage
PST
Pacific Standard Time
Psychrometer
An instrument used to measure the water vapor content of the air; a hygrometer consisting essentially of two similar thermometers with the bulb of one being kept wet so that the cooling that results from evaporation makes it register a lower temperature than the dry one and with the difference between the readings constituting a measure of the dryness of the atmosphere
Public Information Statement
A narrative statement issued by a National Weather Service Forecast Office that can be used for:

1) A current or expected nonhazardous event of general interest to the public that can usually be covered with a single message (e.g., unusual atmospheric phenomena such as sun dogs, halos, rainbows, aurora borealis, lenticular clouds, and stories about a long-term dry/cold/wet/warm spell).

2) Public educational information and activities, such as storm safety rules, awareness activities, storm drills, etc.

3) Information regarding service changes, service limitations, interruptions due to reduced or lost power or equipment outages, or special information clarifying interpretation of NWS data. For example, this product may be used to inform users of radar equipment outages or special information clarifying interpretation of radar data originating from an unusual source which may be mistaken for precipitation (such as chaff drops, smoke plumes, etc., that produces echoes on the radar display.
Public Severe Weather Outlook
These are issued when the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) in Norman, Oklahoma anticipates an especially significant and/or widespread outbreak of severe weather. This outlook will stress the seriousness of the situation, defines the threat area, and provides information on the timing of the outbreak. The lead time on this outlook is normally less than 36 hours prior to the severe weather event.
Puget Sound Convergence Zone
A situation where wind forced around the Olympic Mountains converges over the Puget Sound. Causes extreme variability in weather conditions around Seattle, Washington with some areas of sunshine and others in clouds and rain.
Pulse
A short burst of electromagnetic energy that a radar sends out in a straight line to detect a precipitation target. The straight line that this pulse travels along is called a radar beam.
Pulse Duration
The time over which a radar pulse lasts. The pulse duration can be multiplied by the speed of light to determine the pulse length or pulse width.
Pulse Length
The linear distance in range occupied by an individual pulse from a radar. h = c * t , where t is the duration of the transmitted pulse, c is the speed of light, h is the length of the pulse in space. Note, in the radar equation, the length h/2 is actually used for calculating pulse volume because we are only interested in signals that arrive back at the radar simultaneously. This is also called a pulse width.
Pulse Radar
A type of radar, designed to facilitate range (distance) measurements, in which are transmitted energy emitted in periodic, brief transmission.
Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF)
The amount of time between successive pulses, or bursts, of electromagnetic energy that is transmitted by a radar. The PRF determines the maximum range at which echoes can be detected and also the maximum radial velocity that can be detected by a Doppler radar.
Pulse Repetition Time (PRT)
The time elapsed between pulses by the radar. This is also called the pulse interval.
Pulse Resolution Volume
A discrete radar sampling volume, of dimensions (horizontal beamwidth * vertical beamwidth * 1 range gate).
Pulse Severe Thunderstorms
Single cell thunderstorms which produce brief periods of severe weather (3/4 inch hail, wind gusts in the excess of 58 miles an hour, or a tornado).
Pulse Storm
A thunderstorm within which a brief period (pulse) of strong updraft occurs, during and immediately after which the storm produces a short episode of severe weather. These storms generally are not tornado producers, but often produce large hail and/or damaging winds. See also overshooting top.
Pulse Width
Same as Pulse Length; the linear distance in range occupied by an individual pulse from a radar. h = c * t , where t is the duration of the transmitted pulse, c is the speed of light, h is the length of the pulse in space. Note, in the radar equation, the length h/2 is actually used for calculating pulse volume because we are only interested in signals that arrive back at the radar simultaneously.
Pulse-Pair Processing
Nickname for the technique of mean velocity estimation by calculation of the signal complex covariance argument. The calculation requires two consecutive pulses, hence "pulse-pair".
QPF Discussion
This HPC forecast discussion is directed completely to explaining manual forecasts of areas in the contiguous 48 states expected to receive 1/4 inch or more precipitation during a 24-hour period. The manual forecasts are explained in terms of initial conditions and differences and/or similarities in the numerical model forecasts. General confidence in the manual forecast is expressed where it is appropriate and possible alternatives may be offered. This product is issued 3 times a day.
QPFHSD
NCEP Heavy Snow Discussion
QSTNRY
Quasi-stationary - describes a low or high pressure area or a front that is nearly stationary.
Quality of Snow
The amount of ice in a snow sample expressed as a percent of the weight of the sample.
Quantitative Precipitation Estimate (QPE)
A spatial and temporal analysis estimating the amount of precipitation that has occurred using a variety of techniques including observational and remote sensing data.
Quantitative Precipitation Forecast
A spatial and temporal precipitation forecast that will predict the potential amount of future precipitation for a specified region, or area.
Quasi-stationary
(abbrev. QSTNRY)- Describes a low or high pressure area or a front that is nearly stationary.
Quasi-stationary Front
A front which is nearly stationary or moves very little since the last synoptic position. Also known as a stationary front.
Quiescent Prominence (Filament)
Long, sheet-like prominences nearly vertical to the solar surface
Radar Coded Message
This is an alphanumeric coded message which will be used in preparation of a national radar summary chart. It is automatically produced by the WSR-88D's Radar Product Generator (RPG) in 3 parts (reflectivities, storm motion, and echo tops).
Radar Cross Section
The area of a fictitious, perfect reflector of electromagnetic waves (e.g., metal sphere) that would reflect the same amount of energy back to the radar as the actual target (e.g., lumpy snowflake).
Radar Data Acquisition
An acronym for Radar Data Acquisition. The RDA is the hardware component of the NEXRAD system that consists of the radar antenna, transmitter, receiver, tower, and controlling computer. The RDA collects the unprocessed, analog voltages from the radar antenna and converts the signal to base reflectivity , base velocity, and spectrum width (in polar coordinate form). These "wide-band" products are transmitted to the RPG, which creates and disseminates end-user products. Also: The RDA is the origination point of the WSR-88D radar data that will be eventually used by the radar operator. This WSR-88D component group is made up of several subcomponents which generate and radiate radio frequency (RF) pulses, receive reflected energy from those pulses, and process this received energy into digital base data. The RDA is also the site of the first two of four data recording levels used by the WSR-88D to record and store radar data.
Radar Mosaic
A radar product that combines information from multiple radars to give a regional or national view of reflectivity or precipitation. An individual NEXRAD radar is limited to a range of about 200 miles. Typically, a mosaic product is produced for regions spanning several hundreds to several thousands of miles. Mosaic products are produced by vendors external to the NEXRAD system.
Radiation Laws
The four physical laws which fundamentally describe the behavior of blackbody radiation: Kirchhoff's law, Planck's law, Stefan-Boltzmann law and Wien's displacement law.
Radiational Inversion
Used interchangably with Nocturnal Inversion; a temperature inversion that develops during the night as a result of radiational cooling of the surface. Because the immediate surface (lower Boundary Layer) cools much more rapidly during these conditions than the air just above (upper Boundary Layer), a temperature inversion can be created overnight, but typically erodes quickly after sunrise.
Radio Emission
Emissions of the sun in radio wavelengths from centimeters to dekameters, under both quiet and disturbed conditions. Type I. A noise storm composed of many short, narrow-band bursts in the metric range (300 - 50 MHz). Type II. Narrow-band emission that begins in the meter range (300 MHz) and sweeps slowly (tens of minutes) toward deka- meter wavelengths (10 MHz). Type II emissions occur in loose association with major FLAREs and are indicative of a shock wave moving through the solar atmosphere. Type III. Narrow-band bursts that sweep rapidly (seconds) from decimeter to dekameter wavelengths (500 - 0.5 MHz). They often occur in groups and are an occasional feature of complex solar ACTIVE REGIONs. Type IV. A smooth continuum of broad-band bursts primarily in the meter range (300 - 30 MHz). These bursts are associated with some major flare events beginning 10 to 20 minutes after the flare maximum, and can last for hours
Radiofacsimile
Also known as HF FAX, radiofax or weatherfax, is a means of broadcasting graphic weather maps and other graphic images via HF radio. HF radiofax is also known as WEFAX, although this term is generally used to refer to the reception of weather charts and imagery via satellite. Maps are received using a dedicated radiofax receiver or a single sideband shortwave receiver connected to an external facsimile recorder or PC equipped with a radiofax interface and application software.
Radioisotope Snow Gage
A snow water equivalent gage based on the absorption of gamma radiation by snow; this gage can measure up to 55 inches water equivalent with a 2 to 5 percent error.
Radiosonde
An instrument that is carried aloft by a balloon to send back information on atmospheric temperature, pressure and humidity by means of a small, expendable radio transmitter. Radiosondes can be tracked by radar, radio direction finding, or navigation systems (such as the satellite Global Positioning System) to obtain wind data. See also rawinsonde.
Radius of Maximum Winds
The distance from the center of a tropical cyclone to the location of the cyclone's maximum winds. In well-developed hurricanes, the radius of maximum winds is generally found at the inner edge of the eyewall.
RAFS
Regional Analysis and Forecasting System
Rain Forest
A forest which grows in a region of heavy annual precipitation. There are two major types, tropical and temperate.
Rain Shadow
An area of reduced precipitation on the lee side of a mountain barrier caused by warming of air and dissipation of cloudiness as air descends the barrier.
Rain Shield
In a hurricane, a solid or nearly solid area of rain that typically becomes heavier as one approaches the eye. The outer edge is well defined and its distance from the eye varies greatly from storm to storm. The wind, both sustained and peak gusts, keeps increasing as much as one moves through the rain shield toward the storm's eye.
Rain-free Base
A dark, horizontal cloud base with no visible precipitation beneath it. It typically marks the location of the thunderstorm updraft. Tornadoes may develop from wall clouds attached to the rain-free base, or from the rain-free base itself - especially when the rain-free base is on the south or southwest side of the main precipitation area. Note that the rain-free base may not actually be rain free; hail or large rain drops may be falling. For this reason, updraft base is more accurate.
Rainfall Estimates
A series of NEXRAD products that employ a Z-R relationship to produce accumulations of surface rainfall from observed reflectivity.
Range Resolution
The ability of the radar to distinguish two targets along the same radial but at different ranges. it is approximately ½ the pulse length.
Rapid Onset Flooding (ROF)
In the context of the National Water Model (NWM), rapid onset flooding refers to stream reaches that are forecast to at least double their flow within an hour, and meet or exceed their high water flow within six hours of this flow increase.
Rapidly Intensifying
Any maritime cyclone whose central pressure is dropping, or is expected to drop, at a rate of 1 MB per hour for 24 hours.
Rawinsonde
A radiosonde that is tracked to measure winds.
Rawinsonde Observation
A radiosonde observation which includes wind data.
RAWS
Remote Automated Weather Stations
Rayleigh Scattering
Changes in directions of electromagnetic energy by particles whose diameters are 1/16 wavelength or less. This type of scattering is responsible for the sky being blue.
RDS
Radius
Reconnaissance Code
An aircraft weather reconnaissance code that has come to refer primarily to in-flight tropical weather observations, but actually signifies any detailed weather observation or investigation from an aircraft in flight.
Reflectivity Cross Section
This WSR-88D radar product displays a vertical cross section of reflectivity on a grid with heights up to 70,000 feet on the vertical axis and distance up to 124 nm on the horizontal axis. Cross Section is similar to the Range Height Indicator (RHI) slices observed on conventional radar, but it is not limited to alignments along the radar radials. Instead the 2 end points are operator selected anywhere within 124 nm of the radar that are less than 124 nm apart. It is used to:
1) Examine storm structure features such as overhang, tilt, Weak Echo Regions (WER), and Bounded Weak Echo Regions (BWER);
2) Estimate height of higher dBZ's and echo tops; and
3) Locate the bright band (where snow is melting and becoming rain).
Remote Observing System Automation
A type of automated data transmitter used by NWS Cooperative Program observers.
Reservoir
In hydrologic terms, a manmade facility for the storage, regulation and controlled release of water.
Residual Layer
the elevated portion of a convective boundary layer that remains after a stable boundary layer develops at the ground (usually in late afternoon or early evening) and cuts off convection.
Residual Moisture
Atmospheric moisture which lingers over an area after the main weather system has departed.
Resonance
The state of a system in which an abnormally large vibration is produced in response to an external stimulus, occurring when the frequency of the stimulus is the same, or nearly the same, as the natural vibration frequency of the system.
Response Time
In hydrologic terms, the amount of time in which it will take a watershed to react to a given rainfall event
Retrogression
(or Retrograde Motion) - Movement of a weather system in a direction opposite to that of the basic flow in which it is embedded, usually referring to a closed low or a longwave trough which moves westward.
Return Stroke
An electrical discharge that propagates upward along a lightning channel from the ground to the cloud.
Right Ascension
The celestial longitude of the sun. This value is 0 at the vernal equinox, 90 at the summer solstice, 180 at the autumnal equinox and 270 at the winter solstice.
River Basin
In hydrologic terms, drainage area of a river and its tributaries.
River Flood Statement
This product is used by the local National Weather Service Forecast Office (NWFO) to update and expand the information in the River Flood Warning. This statement may be used in lieu of a warning if flooding is forecasted, imminent, or existing and it presents no threat to life or property. The statement will also be used to terminate a River Flood Warning.
River Forecast
An internal product issued by RFCs to other NWS offices. An RVF contains stage and/ or flow forecasts for specific locations based on existing, and forecasted hydrometeorologic conditions. The contents of these products are used by the HSA office to prepare Flood Warnings (FLW), Flood Statements (FLS), River Statements (RVS), as well as other products available to the public.
River Forecast Center
Centers that serve groups of Weather Service Forecast offices and Weather Forecast offices, in providing hydrologic guidance and is the first echelon office for the preparation of river and flood forecasts and warnings.
River Ice Statement
A public product issued by the RFC containing narrative and numeric information on river ice conditions.
River Observing Station
An established location along a river designated for observing and measuring properties of the river.
River Recreation Statement
A statement released by the NWS to inform river users of current and forecast river and lake conditions. These statements are especially useful for planning purposes.
River Statement
A NWS product issued to communicate notable hydrologic conditions which do not involve flooding, i.e., within river bank rises, minor ice jams, etc.
River System
In hydrologic terms, all of the streams and channels draining a river basin.
RLS
Release
Rocketsonde
A type of radiosonde that is shot into the atmosphere by a rocket, allowing it to collect data during its parachute descent from a higher position in the atmosphere than a balloon could reach.
Rope Stage
The dissipating stage of a tornado, characterized by thinning and shrinking of the condensation funnel into a rope (or rope funnel). Damage still is possible during this stage.
ROSA
Remote Observing System Automation. A type of automated data transmitter used by NWS Cooperative Program observers.
Rossby Waves
A series of troughs and ridges on quasi-horizontal surfaces in the major belt of upper tropospheric westerlies. The waves are thousands of kilometers long and have significant latitudinal amplitude.
Rough Seas
Sea conditions associated with regionally defined wind thresholds over bays, inlets, harbors, inland waters, and estuaries where larger waves are forming with whitecaps and spray everywhere.
RSG
Rising
RSN
Reason
RTVS
Real Time Verification System
Runway Visual Range
The maximum distance at which the runway, or the specified lights or markers delineating it, can be seen from a position above a specified point on its center line. This value is normally determined by visibility sensors located alongside and higher than the center line of the runway. RVR is calculated from visibility, ambient light level, and runway light intensity.
RVS
1. Abbreviation for "revise"

2. River Statement, a product issued to communicate notable hydrologic conditions which do not involve flooding, i.e., within river bank rises, minor ice jams, etc.
S
1) South
or
2) Snow
S-Band Radar
These were in use as network radars in the National Weather Service prior to the installation of the WSR 88-D radars. They were 10-centimeter wavelength radars.
S/W
Shortwave - a disturbance in the mid or upper part of the atmosphere which induces upward motion ahead of it. If other conditions are favorable, the upward motion can contribute to thunderstorm development ahead of a shortwave.
S/WV
Shortwave - a disturbance in the mid or upper part of the atmosphere which induces upward motion ahead of it. If other conditions are favorable, the upward motion can contribute to thunderstorm development ahead of a shortwave.
SAB
Satellite Analysis Branch, part of NESDIS NESDIS: National Environmental Satellite, Data and Information Service
Sacramento Soil Moisture Accounting Model (SAC-SMA)
A continuous soil moisture accounting model with spatially lumped parameters that simulates runoff within a basin.
SafetyNET
Inmarsat-C SafetyNET is an internationally adopted, automated satellite system for promulgating weather forecasts and warnings, marine navigational warnings and other safety related information to all types vessels and is part of the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS).
Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale
The Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale is a 1 to 5 categorization based on the hurricane's intensity at the indicated time. The scale provides examples of the type of damage and impacts in the United States associated with winds of the indicated intensity. In general, damage rises by about a factor of four for every category increase. The maximum sustained surface wind speed (peak 1-minute wind at the standard meteorological observation height of 10 m [33 ft] over unobstructed exposure) associated with the cyclone is the determining factor in the scale. The scale does not address the potential for other hurricane-related impacts, such as storm surge, rainfall-induced floods, and tornadoes.
Salinity (SAL)
In oceanography, conductivity is measured and converted to salinity by a known functional relationship between the measured electrical conductivity of seawater temperature and pressure.
SAME
(Specific Area Message Encoding) - A tone alert system which allows NOAA Weather Radio receivers equipped with the SAME feature to sound an alert for only certain weather conditions or within a limited geographic area such as a county.
SAMEX
Storm and Mesoscale Ensemble Experiment
Sampling Frequency
The rate at which sensor data is read or sampled.
Sandstorm
Particles of sand carried aloft by strong wind. The sand particles are mostly confined to the lowest ten feet, and rarely rise more than fifty feet above the ground.
Santa Ana Wind
In southern California, a weather condition in which strong, hot, dust-bearing winds descend to the Pacific Coast around Los Angeles from inland desert regions.
Sastrugi
Ridges of snow formed on a snow field by the action of the wind.
SAT
1. Satellite (imagery)

2. Saturday
Satellite Hydrology Program
A NOHRSC program that uses satellite data to generate areal extent of snow cover data over large areas of the western United States.
SATL
Satellite
Saturation Vapor Pressure
The vapor pressure of a system, at a given temperature, wherein the vapor of a substance is in equilibrium with a plane surface of that substance's pure liquid or solid phase.
SAWRS
Supplementary Aviation Reporting Station - the SAWRS program addresses the concerns of users who depend on weather observations for air operations. If the cooperator is collocated with a commissioned automated system, they ensure continuity during outage periods of the automated system. The requirement for a SAWRS arises from the FAA validated need for observations to satisfy FAR 121 or 135 operations or for the safe conduct of other aircraft.
SBCAPE
Surface Based CAPE; CAPE calculated using a Surface based parcel.
SBND
Southbound
SBSD
Subside
SC
Stratocumulus
SCA
Small Craft Advisory
Scattered
When used to describe precipitation (for example: "scattered showers") - Area coverage of convective weather affecting 30 percent to 50 percent of a forecast zone (s). When used to describe sky cover: 3/8th to 4/8th (sky cover is measured in eighths or oktas) of the sky covered by clouds. In U.S. weather observing procedures, this is reported with the contraction “SCT.”
Scattering
The process in which a beam of light is diffused or deflected by collisions with particles suspended in the atmosphere.
SCT
Scattered
Scud
Small, ragged, low cloud fragments that are unattached to a larger cloud base and often seen with and behind cold fronts and thunderstorm gust fronts. Such clouds generally are associated with cool moist air, such as thunderstorm outflow.
SE
Southeast
Sea Breeze
A thermally produced wind blowing during the day from a cool ocean surface onto the adjoining warm land, caused by the difference in the rates of heating of the surfaces of the ocean and of the land.
Sea Breeze Convergence Zone
The zone at the leading edge of a sea breeze where winds converge. The incoming air rises in this zone, often producing convective clouds.
Sea Breeze Front
The leading edge of a sea breeze, whose passage is often accompanied by showers, a wind shift, or a sudden drop in temperature.
Sea Fog
Common advection fog caused by transport of moist air over a cold body of water.
Sea Ice
Any form of ice found at sea which has originated from the freezing of sea water (sea ice does NOT include superstructure icing). Ice formed from the freezing of the waters of the Great Lakes will be considered the same as sea ice.
Sea Level Pressure
The sea level pressure is the atmospheric pressure at sea level at a given location. When observed at a reporting station that is not at sea level (nearly all stations), it is a correction of the station pressure to sea level. This correction takes into account the standard variation of pressure with height and the influence of temperature variations with height on the pressure. The temperature used in the sea level correction is a twelve hour mean, eliminating diurnal effects. Once calculated, horizontal variations of sea level pressure may be compared for location of high and low pressure areas and fronts.
Sea Surface Temperatures
The term refers to the mean temperature of the ocean in the upper few meters.
Seas
The combination of both wind waves and swell. Used to describe the combination or interaction of wind waves and swell in which the separate components are not distinguished. This includes the case when swell is negligible or is not considered in describing sea state. Specifically, Seas2 = S2+W2 where S is the height of the swell and W is the height of the wind wave. When used, Seas should be considered as being the same as the Significant Wave Height
Second-Day Feet
In hydrologic terms, the volume of water represented by a flow of one cubic foot per second for 24 hours; equal to 86,400 cubic feet. This is used extensively as a unit of runoff volume. Often abbreviated as SDF.
Secondary Ambient Air Quality Standards
Air quality standards designed to protect human welfare, including the effects on vegetation and fauna, visibility and structures.
Secondary Pollutant
Pollutants generated by chemical reactions occurring within the atmosphere. Compare primary pollutant.
Sector Boundary
In solar-terrestrial terms, in the solar wind, the area of demarcation between sectors, which are large-scale features distinguished by the predominant direction of the interplanetary magnetic field, toward or away from the sun.
Sector Visibility
The visibility in a specific direction that represents at least a 45º arc of a horizontal circle.
Sectorized Hybrid Scan
A single reflectivity scan composed of data from the lowest four elevation scans. Close to the radar, higher tilts are used to reduce clutter. At further ranges, either the maximum values from the lowest two scans are used or the second scan values are used alone.
Securite
A headline within National Weather Service high seas forecasts transmitted via the GMDSS to indicate that no hurricane or hurricane force winds are forecast.
Sediment Storage Capacity
In hydrologic terms, the volume of a reservoir planned for the deposition of sediment.
Seepage
In hydrologic terms, the interstitial movement of water that may take place through a dam, its foundation, or abutments.
Seiche
A standing wave oscillation of water in large lakes usually created by strong winds and/or a large barometric pressure gradient.
SEL
A watch cancellation statement issued to terminate a watch before its original expiration time.
SELS
Severe Local Storm
SELY
Southeasterly
Sensible Heat Flux
The flux of heat from the earth's surface to the atmosphere that is not associated with phase changes of water; a component of the surface energy budget.
Sentinel-1 (S1)
A European Space Agency satellite remote sensing mission which images with a 5cm wavelength Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).
Sentinel-2 (S2)
A European Space Agency satellite remote sensing mission which images with a multi-spectral scanner.
Separation Eddy
An eddy that forms near the ground on the windward or leeward side of a bluff object or steeply rising hillside; streamlines above this eddy go over the object.
Serial Derecho
Type of derecho that consists of an extensive squall line which is oriented such that the angle between the mean wind direction and the squall line axis is small. A series of LEWPs and bow echoes move along the line. The downburst activity is associated with the LEWPs and bows. A Serial Derecho tends to be more frequent toward the north end of the line during the late winter and spring months. It occurs less frequently than its cousin the "progressive derecho."

It is associated with a linear type mesoscale convective system that moves along and in advance of a cold front or dry line. These boundaries are often associated with a strong, migratory surface low pressure system and strong short wave trough at 500 mb (strong dynamic forcing). Lifted Indices are typically -6 or lower and the advection of dry air in the mid-troposphere (3-7 km above ground) by relatively strong winds leads to high convective instability and increased downdraft potential. The bow echoes move along the line in the direction of the mean flow, often southwest to northeast. These storms move at speeds exceeding 35 knots. Squall line movement is often less than 30 knots.
SERN
Southeastern
Service Hydrologist
The designated expert of the hydrology program at a WFO.
Servo Loop
In radar meteorology, a generic description of hardware needed to remotely control the motion of the antenna dish.
Set
The direction towards which a current is headed. For example, a current moving from west to east is said to be set to east.
Set-up
The process whereby strong winds blowing down the length of a lake cause water to "pile up" at the downwind end, raising water levels there and lowering them at the upwind end of the lake.
Severe Icing
The rate of ice accumulation on an aircraft is such that de-icing/anti-icing equipment fails to reduce or control the hazard. Immediate diversion is necessary.
Severe Local Storm
A convective storm that usually covers a relatively small geographic area, or moves in a narrow path, and is sufficiently intense to threaten life and/or property. Examples include severe thunderstorms with large hail, damaging wind, or tornadoes. Although cloud-to-ground lightning is not a criteria for severe local storms, it is acknowledged to be highly dangerous and a leading cause of deaths, injuries, and damage from thunderstorms. A thunderstorm need not be severe to generate frequent cloud-to-ground lightning. Additionally, excessive localized convective rains are not classified as severe storms but often are the product of severe local storms. Such rainfall may result in related phenomena (flash floods) that threaten life and property.
Severe Local Storm Watch
An alert issued by the National Weather Service for the contiguous U.S. and its adjacent waters of the potential for severe thunderstorms or tornadoes.
Severe Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm that produces a tornado, winds of at least 58 mph (50knots), and/or hail at least 1" in diameter. Structural wind damage mayimply the occurrence of a severe thunderstorm. A thunderstorm wind equalto or greater than 40 mph (35 knots) and/or hail of at least 1" isdefined as approaching severe.
Severe Thunderstorm Warning
This is issued when either a severe thunderstorm is indicated by the WSR-88D radar or a spotter reports a thunderstorm producing hail one inch or larger in diameter and/or winds equal or exceed 58 miles an hour; therefore, people in the affected area should seek safe shelter immediately. Severe thunderstorms can produce tornadoes with little or no advance warning. Lightning frequency is not a criteria for issuing a severe thunderstorm warning. They are usually issued for a duration of one hour. They can be issued without a Severe Thunderstorm Watch being already in effect.

Like a Tornado Warning, the Severe Thunderstorm Warning is issued by your National Weather Service Forecast Office (NWFO). Severe Thunderstorm Warnings will include where the storm was located, what towns will be affected by the severe thunderstorm, and the primary threat associated with the severe thunderstorm warning. If the severe thunderstorm will affect the nearshore or coastal waters, it will be issued as the combined product--Severe Thunderstorm Warning and Special Marine Warning. If the severe thunderstorm is also causing torrential rains, this warning may also be combined with a Flash Flood Warning. If there is an ampersand (&) symbol at the bottom of the warning, it indicates that the warning was issued as a result of a severe weather report.

After it has been issued, the affected NWFO will follow it up periodically with Severe Weather Statements. These statements will contain updated information on the severe thunderstorm and they will also let the public know when the warning is no longer in effect.
Severe Thunderstorm Watch
This is issued by the National Weather Service when conditions are favorable for the development of severe thunderstorms in and close to the watch area. A severe thunderstorm by definition is a thunderstorm that produces one inch hail or larger in diameter and/or winds equal or exceed 58 miles an hour. The size of the watch can vary depending on the weather situation. They are usually issued for a duration of 4 to 8 hours. They are normally issued well in advance of the actual occurrence of severe weather. During the watch, people should review severe thunderstorm safety rules and be prepared to move a place of safety if threatening weather approaches.

A Severe Thunderstorm Watch is issued by the Storm Prediction Center in Norman, Oklahoma. Prior to the issuance of a Severe Thunderstorm Watch, SPC will usually contact the affected local National Weather Service Forecast Office (NWFO) and they will discuss what their current thinking is on the weather situation. Afterwards, SPC will issue a preliminary Severe Thunderstorm Watch and then the affected NWFO will then adjust the watch (adding or eliminating counties/parishes) and then issue it to the public by way of a Watch Redefining Statement. During the watch, the NWFO will keep the public informed on what is happening in the watch area and also let the public know when the watch has expired or been cancelled.
Severe Weather Analysis
This WSR-88D radar product provides 3 base products (reflectivity (SWR), radial velocity (SWV), and spectrum width (SWW)) at the highest resolution available along with radial shear (SWS). These products are mapped into a 27 nm by 27 nm region centered on a point which the operator can specify anywhere within a 124 nm radius of the radar. It is most effective when employed as an alert paired product with the product centered on alert at height that caused the alert. It is used to examine 3 base products simultaneously in a 4 quadrant display; and analyze reflectivity and velocity products at various heights to gain a comprehensive vertical analysis of the thunderstorm.
Severe Weather Potential Statement
This statement is designed to alert the public and state/local agencies to the potential for severe weather up to 24 hours in advance. It is issued by the local National Weather Service office.
Severe Weather Probability
This WSR-88D radar product algorithm displays numerical values proportional to the probability that a storm will produce severe weather within 30 minutes. Values determined using a statistical regression equation which analyzes output from the VIL algorithm. It is used to quickly identify the most significant thunderstorms.
Severe Weather Statement
A National Weather Service product which provides follow up information on severe weather conditions (severe thunderstorm or tornadoes) which have occurred or are currently occurring.
SEWD
Southeastward
SFC
Surface
Sferic
In solar-terrestrial terms, a transient electric or magnetic field generated by any feature of lightning discharge (entire flash).
SG
Snow grains
SGFNT
Significant
Shallow Fog
Fog in which the visibility at 6 feet above ground level is 5/8ths statute mile or more and the apparent visibility in the fog layer is less than 5/8ths statute mile.
SHARS
Subtle Heavy Rainfall Signature
Shear
Variation in wind speed (speed shear) and/or direction (directional shear) over a short distance within the atmosphere. Shear usually refers to vertical wind shear, i.e., the change in wind with height, but the term also is used in Doppler radar to describe changes in radial velocity over short horizontal distances.
Sheet Flow
In hydrologic terms, flow that occurs overland in places where there are no defined channels, the flood water spreads out over a large area at a uniform depth. This also referred to as overland flow.
Sheet ice
Ice formed by the freezing of liquid precipitation or the freezing of melted solid precipitation (see snow depth)
Shelf Cloud
A low, horizontal wedge-shaped arcus cloud, associated with a thunderstorm gust front (or occasionally with a cold front, even in the absence of thunderstorms). Unlike the roll cloud, the shelf cloud is attached to the base of the parent cloud above it (usually a thunderstorm). Rising cloud motion often can be seen in the leading (outer) part of the shelf cloud, while the underside often appears turbulent, boiling, and wind-torn.
SHFT
Shift
SHLW
Shallow
Shore ice
In hydrologic terms, an ice sheet in the form of a long border attached to the bank or shore.; border ice.
Short Range Forecast (SRF)
A configuration of the National Water Model (NWM) that runs hourly and produces hourly deterministic forecasts of streamflow and hydrologic states out to 18 hours for the contiguous United States (ConUS), and out 48 hours for Hawaii and Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands. For ConUS, meteorological forcing data are drawn from the HRRR and RAP. For Hawaii and Puerto Rico/U.S. Virgin Islands, meteorological forcing data are drawn from the NAM-Nest with HIRESW WRF-ARW.
Short Term Forecast
A product used to convey information regarding weather or hydrologic events in the next few hours.
Short Wave Fade (SWF)
In solar-terrestrial terms, a particular ionospheric solar flare effect under the broad category of sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs) whereby short-wavelength radio transmissions, VLF, through HF, are absorbed for a period of minutes to hours.
Short-Fuse Warning
A warning issued by the NWS for a local weather hazard of relatively short duration. Short-fuse warnings include tornado warnings, severe thunderstorm warnings, and flash flood warnings. Tornado and severe thunderstorm warnings typically are issued for periods of an hour or less, flash flood warnings typically for three hours or less.
Short-Term Prediction Research and Transition (SPoRT)
A NASA- and NOAA-funded activity to transition experimental/quasi-operational satellite observations and research capabilities to the operational weather community to improve short-term weather forecasts on a regional and local scale.
Short-Term Prediction Research and Transition Center - Land Information System (SPoRT-LIS)
Provides high-resolution (~3 km) gridded soil moisture products in real-time to support regional and local modeling and improve situational awareness.
Shortwave
Also known as Shortwave Trough; a disturbance in the mid or upper part of the atmosphere which induces upward motion ahead of it. If other conditions are favorable, the upward motion can contribute to thunderstorm development ahead of a shortwave.
Shortwave Radiation
In solar-terrestrial terms, shortwave radiation is a term used to describe the radiant energy emitted by the sun in the visible and near-ultraviolet wavelengths (between about 0.1 and 2 micrometers).
Shortwave Trough
Also called Shortwave; A disturbance in the mid or upper part of the atmosphere which induces upward motion ahead of it. If other conditions are favorable, the upward motion can contribute to thunderstorm development ahead of a shortwave trough.
Showalter Index
(Abbrev. SWI) - a stability index used to determine thunderstorm potential. The SWI is calculated by lifting an air parcel adiabatically from 850 mb to 500 mb. The algebraic difference between the air parcel and the environmental temperature at 500 mb represents the SWI. It is especially useful when you have a shallow cool airmass below 850 mb concealing greater convective potential aloft. However, the SWI will underestimate the convective potential for cool layers extending above 850 mb. It also does not take in account diurnal heating or moisture below 850 mb. As a result, one must be very careful when using this index.
Shower
A descriptor, SH, used to qualify precipitation characterized by the suddenness with which they start and stop, by the rapid changes of intensity, and usually by rapid changes in the appearance of the sky.
SHRA
Rain showers
SHRAS
showers
SHRT
Short
SHRTWV
Shortwave - a disturbance in the mid or upper part of the atmosphere which induces upward motion ahead of it. If other conditions are favorable, the upward motion can contribute to thunderstorm development ahead of a shortwave.
SHSN
Snow showers
SHWR
Shower
Sidelobe
A secondary energy maximum located outside the main radar beam. Typically, it contains a small percentage of energy compared to the main lobe, but it may produce erroneous echoes.
SIGMET
Significant Meteorological Advisory
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
A ratio that measures the comprehensibility of data, usually expressed as the signal power divided by the noise power, usually expressed in decibels (dB).
Significant Wave Height
The mean or average height of the highest one third of all waves in a swell train or in a wave generating region. It approximates the value an experienced observer would report if visually estimating sea height. When expressed as a range (e.g. Seas 2-4 ft) , indicates a degree of uncertainty in the forecast and/or expected changing conditions (not that all waves are between 2-4 ft). Generally, it is assumed that individual wave heights can be described using a Rayleigh distribution.

Example: Significant Wave Height = 10 ft 1 in 10 waves will be larger than 11 ft 1 in 100 waves will be larger than 16 ft 1 in 1000 waves will larger than 19 ft

Therefore, assuming a wave period of 8 seconds, for a significant wave height of 10 feet, a wave 19 feet or higher will occur every 8,000 seconds (2.2 hours).
Significant Weather Outlook
A narrative statement produced by the National Weather Service, frequently issued on a routine basis, to provide information regarding the potential of significant weather expected during the next 1 to 5 days.
SIGWX
Significant Weather
Single Cell Thunderstorm
This type of thunderstorm develops in weak vertical wind shear environments. On a hodograph, this would appear as a closely grouped set of random dots around the center of the graph. They are characterized by a single updraft core and a single downdraft that descends into the same area as the updraft. The downdraft and its outflow boundary then cut off the thunderstorm inflow. This causes the updraft and the thunderstorm to dissipate. Single cell thunderstorms are short-lived. They only last about 1/2 hour to an hour. These thunderstorms will occasionally become severe (3/4 inch hail, wind gusts in the excess of 58 miles an hour, or a tornado), but only briefly. In this case, they are called Pulse Severe Thunderstorms.
SITOR
(SImplex Teletype Over Radio) - a means of transmitting text broadcasts over radio. The U.S. Coast Guard SITOR broadcast of NWS forecasts is performed in mode B, FEC. SITOR is also known as Narrow Band Direct Printing (NBDP). SITOR/NBDP is an automated direct service similar to NAVTEX, but does not offer all of the same functionality such as avoiding repeated messages.
Sky Condition
Used in a forecast to describes the predominant/average sky condition based upon octants (eighths) of the sky covered by opaque (not transparent) clouds.

Sky ConditionCloud Coverage
Clear / Sunny0/8
Mostly Clear / Mostly Sunny1/8 to 2/8
Partly Cloudy / Partly Sunny3/8 to 4/8
Mostly Cloudy / Considerable Cloudiness5/8 to 7/8
Cloudy8/8
Fair (mainly for night)Less than 4/10 opaque clouds, no precipitation, no extremes of visibility/temperature/wind
SKYWARN
A nationwide network of volunteer weather spotters who report to and are trained by the National Weather Service. These spotters report many forms of significant or severe weather such as Severe Thunderstorms, Tornadoes, Hail, Heavy Snow, or Flooding. Contact your local National Weather Service Forecast Office to learn about SKYWARN activities in your area.
SL
Sea Level
SLD
Solid
Sleet
(PL) - Sleet is defined as pellets of ice composed of frozen or mostly frozen raindrops or refrozen partially melted snowflakes. These pellets of ice usually bounce after hitting the ground or other hard surfaces. Heavy sleet is a relatively rare event defined as an accumulation of ice pellets covering the ground to a depth of ½" or more.
Sleet Warning
Issued when accumulation of sleet in excess of 1/2" is expected; this is a relatively rare scenario. Usually issued as a winter storm warning for heavy sleet.
SLGT
Slight
Slight Chance
In probability of precipitation statements, usually equivalent to a 20 percent chance.
Slight Risk
(of severe thunderstorms)- Severe thunderstorms are expected to affect between 2 and 5 percent of the area. A slight risk generally implies that severe weather events are expected to be isolated.
Sling Psychrometer
An instrument used to measure the water vapor content of the atmosphere in which wet and dry bulb thermometers are mounted on a frame connected to a handle at one end by means of a bearing or a length of chain. The psychrometer is whirled by hand to provide the necessary ventilation to evaporate water from the wet bulb.
SLO
Slow
SLOSH
(Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes) - A computer model run by the National Hurricane Center (NHC) to estimate storm surge heights resulting from historical, hypothetical, or predicted hurricanes by taking into account pressure, size, forward speed, track, and winds.
SLP
Sea Level Pressure
SLT
1. Slight (as in "slight chance")

2. Sleet
SLY
Southerly
SM
1) Statute Miles

2) Sum total for month
SMA
The Soil Moisture Accounting Model.
Small Craft
There is no precise definition for small craft. Any vessel that may be adversely affected by Small Craft Advisory criteria should be considered a small craft. Other considerations include the experience of the vessel operator, and the type, overall size, and sea worthiness of the vessel. See Small Craft Advisory.
Small Craft Advisory
(SCA) - An advisory issued by coastal and Great Lakes Weather Forecast Offices (WFO) for areas included in the Coastal Waters Forecast or Nearshore Marine Forecast (NSH) products. Thresholds governing the issuance of small craft advisories are specific to geographic areas. A Small Craft Advisory may also be issued when sea or lake ice exists that could be hazardous to small boats. There is no precise definition of a small craft. Any vessel that may be adversely affected by Small Craft Advisory criteria should be considered a small craft. Other considerations include the experience of the vessel operator, and the type, overall size, and sea worthiness of the vessel. Exact thresholds may be found in NWSI 10-303:https://www.nws.noaa.gov/directives/sym/pd01003003curr.pdf. For a list of NWS Weather Offices by Region, refer to the following website: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/organization.php
Small Craft Should Exercise Caution
Precautionary statement issued to alert mariners with small, weather sensitive boats.
Small Hail
Technically used to refer to snow pellets or graupel.
Small Stream Flooding
In hydrologic terms, flooding of small creeks, streams, or runs.
Smog
Originally smog meant a mixture of smoke and fog. Now, it means air that has restricted visibility due to pollution or pollution formed in the presence of sunlight--photochemical smog.
Smoke
(abbrev. K) Smoke in various concentrations can cause significant problems for people with respiratory ailments. It becomes a more universal hazard when visibilities are reduced to ¼ mile or less.
Smoke Dispersal
Describes the ability of the atmosphere to ventilate smoke. Depends on the stability and winds in the lower layers of the atmosphere, i.e., a combination of mixing heights and transport winds.
Smoke Management
The use of meteorology, fuel moisture, fuel loading, fire suppression and burn techniques to keep smoke impacts from prescribed fires within acceptable limits.
Smoothed Sunspot Number
An average of 13 monthly RI numbers, centered on the month of concern.
SMW
(Special Marine Warning) - A warning product issued for potentially hazardous weather conditions usually of short duration (up to 2 hours) producing sustained marine thunderstorm winds or associated gusts of 34 knots or greater; and/or hail 3/4 inch or more in diameter; and/or waterspouts affecting areas included in a Coastal Waters Forecast, a Nearshore Marine Forecast, or an Great Lakes Open Lakes Forecast that is not adequately covered by existing marine warnings. Also used for short duration mesoscale events such as a strong cold front, gravity wave, squall line, etc., lasting less than 2 hours and producing winds or gusts of 34 knots or greater.
SN
snow
Snotel
SNOw TELemetry - An automated network of snowpack data collection sites. The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), formerly the Soil Conservation Service (SCS), has operated the Federal-State-Private Cooperative Snow Survey Program in the western United States since 1935. A standard SNOTEL site consists of a snow pillow, a storage type precipitation gage, air temperature sensor and a small shelter for housing electronics.
Snow
Precipitation in the form of ice crystals, mainly of intricately branched, hexagonal form and often agglomerated into snowflakes, formed directly from the freezing [deposition] of the water vapor in the air.
Snow Accumulation and Ablation Model
In hydrologic terms, a model which simulates snow pack accumulation, heat exchange at the air-snow interface, areal extent of snow cover, heat storage within the snow pack, liquid water retention, and transmission and heat exchange at the ground-snow interface.
Snow Advisory
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when a low pressure system produces snow that may cause significant inconveniences, but do not meet warning criteria and if caution is not exercised could lead to life threatening situations. The advisory criteria varies from area to area. If the forecaster feels that it is warranted, he or she can issued it for amounts less than the minimum criteria. For example, it may be issued for the first snow of the season or when snow has not fallen in long while.
Snow Core
A sample of either freshly fallen snow, or the combined old and new snow on the ground. This is obtained by pushing a cylinder down through the snow layer and extracting it.
Snow Cornice
A mass of snow or ice projecting over a mountain ridge.
Snow Data Assimilation System (SNODAS)
A physically based, mass conserving snow water equivalent (SWE) model.
Snow Density
The mass of snow per unit volume which is equal to the water content of the snow divided by its depth.
Snow Depth
The combined total depth of both the old and new snow on the ground.
Snow Flurries
Snow flurries are an intermittent light snowfall of short duration (generally light snow showers) with no measurable accumulation (trace category).
Snow Grains
Precipitation consisting of white, opaque ice particles usually less than 1 mm in diameter.
Snow Pack
Same as Snowcover; the combined layers of snow and ice on the ground at any one time.
Snow Pellets
Precipitation, usually of brief duration, consisting of crisp, white, opaque ice particles, round or conical in shape and about 2 to 5 mm in diameter. Same as graupel or small hail.
Snow Pillow
1) A window of snow deposited in the immediate lee of a snow fence or ridge.
or
2) In hydrologic terms, an instrument used to measure snow water equivalents. Snow pillows typically have flat stainless steel surface areas. The pillow below this flat surface is filled with antifreeze solution and the pressure in the pillow is related to the water-equivalent depth of the snow on the platform. One great advantage of snow pillows over a snow survey is the frequency of observations, which can be as high as twice per day.
Snow Shower
A snow shower is a short duration of moderate snowfall. Some accumulation is possible.
Snow Squall
A snow squall is an intense, but limited duration, period of moderate to heavy snowfall, accompanied by strong, gusty surface winds and possibly lightning (generally moderate to heavy snow showers). Snow accumulation may be significant.
Snow Stake
A 1-3/4 inch square, semi-permanent stake, marked in inch increments to measure snow depth.
Snow Stick
A portable rod used to measure snow depth.
Snow Water Equivalent
The water content obtained from melting accumulated snow.
Snowboard
A flat, solid, white material, such as painted plywood, approximately two feet square, which is laid on the ground, or snow surface by weather observers to obtain more accurate measurements of snowfall and water content.
Snowcover
Also known as Snow Pack; the combined layers of snow and ice on the ground at any one time.
Snowflake
An agglomeration of snow crystals falling as a unit.
Snowmelt Flooding
In hydrologic terms, flooding caused primarily by the melting of snow.
Snowpack
The total snow and ice on the ground, including both the new snow and the previous snow and ice which has not melted.
SNR
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SNW
snow
SNW
Snowfall
SNWFL
Snowfall
SOI
The Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) has been developed to monitor the Southern Oscillation using the difference between sea level pressures at Darwin, Australia, and Tahiti, although other stations have sometimes been used. Large negative values of the SOI indicate a warm event, and large positive values indicate a cold event (also referred to as La Niña). It is important to note that there is not a one-to-one correspondence between the occurrence of Southern Oscillation events and El Niño events, using the spatially restrictive original definition of El Niño.
Soil Moisture
Water contained in the upper part of the soil mantle. This moisture evaporates from the soil and is the used and transpired by vegetation.
Solar Coordinates
In solar-terrestrial terms, Central Meridian Distance (CMD). The angular distance in solar longitude measured from the central meridian
Solar Cycle
In solar-terrestrial terms, the approximately 11-year quasi-periodic variation in frequency or number of solar active events.
Solar Maximum
In solar-terrestrial terms, the month(s) during the solar cycle when the 12-month mean of monthly average sunspot numbers reaches a maximum.
Solar Minimum
In solar-terrestrial terms, the month(s) during the solar cycle when the 12-month mean of monthly average sunspot numbers reaches a minimum.
Solar Noon
The time of day at which the sun is the highest in the sky. This time varies through the year due to the change in speed of the earth's orbit around the sun.
Solar Sector Boundary (SSB)
In solar-terrestrial terms, the apparent solar origin, or base, of the interplanetary sector boundary marked by the larger-scale polarity inversion lines.
Solar Wind
The outward flux of solar particles and magnetic fields from the sun. Typically, solar wind velocities are near 350 km/s.
SOLN
Solution
SOLNS
solutions
Solstice
Either of the two times per year when the sun is at its greatest angular distance from the celestial equator: about June 21 (the Northern Hemisphere summer solstice), when the sun reaches its northernmost point on the celestial sphere, or about December 22 (the Northern Hemisphere winter solstice), when it reaches its southernmost point.
SOO
Science and Operations Officer
Sounding
A set of data measuring the vertical structure of an atmospheric parameter (temperature, humidity, pressure, winds, etc.) at a given time.
Southern Oscillation
(SO) - a "see-saw" in surface pressure in the tropical Pacific characterized by simultaneously opposite sea level pressure anomalies at Tahiti, in the eastern tropical Pacific and Darwin, on the northwest coast of Australia. The SO was discovered by Sir Gilbert Walker in the early 1920's. Walker was among the first meteorologists to use the statistical techniques to analyze and predict meteorological phenomena. Later, the three-dimensional east-west circulation related to the SO was discovered and named the "Walker Circulation". The SO oscillates with a period of 2-5 years. During one phase, when the sea level pressure is low at Tahiti and High at Darwin, the El Nino occurs. The cold phase of the SO, called "La Nina" by some, is characterized by high pressure in the eastern equatorial Pacific, low in the west, and by anomalously cold sea surface temperature (SST) in the central and eastern Pacific. This is called El Nino Southern Oscillation or ENSO.
Southern Oscillation Index
A numerical index measuring the state of the Southern Oscillation. The SOI is based on the (atmospheric) pressure difference between Tahiti and Darwin, Australia. It is highly correlated with tropical sea surface temperature anomaly indices recorded in Niño3.
Space Environment Center
(SEC) - This center provides real-time monitoring and forecasting of solar and geophysical events, conducts research in solar-terrestrial physics, and develops techniques for forecasting solar and geophysical disturbances. SEC's parent organization is the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). SEC is one of NOAA's 12 Environmental Research Laboratories (ERL) and one of NOAA's 9 National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). SEC's Space Weather Operations is jointly operated by NOAA and the U.S. Air Force and is the national and world warning center for disturbances that can affect people and equipment working in the space environment.
SPC
Storm Prediction Center
SPCLY
Especially
SPD
1) Speed
2) On a buoy report, ten-minute average wind speed values in m/s.
Spearhead Echo
A radar echo associated with a downburst with a pointed appendage extending toward the direction of the echo motion. The appendage moves much faster than the parent echo, which is drawn into the appendage. During it's mature stage, the appendage turns into a major echo and the parent echo loses its identity.
Special Avalanche Warning
Issued by the National Weather Service when avalanches are imminent or occurring in the mountains. It is usually issued for a 24 hour period.
Special Fire Weather
Meteorological services uniquely required by user agencies which cannot be provided at an NWS office during normal working hours. Examples are on-site support, weather observer training, and participation in user agency training activities.
Special Marine Warning
(SMW) A warning product issued for potentially hazardous weather conditions usually of short duration (up to 2 hours) producing sustained marine thunderstorm winds or associated gusts of 34 knots or greater; and/or hail 3/4 inch or more in diameter; and/or waterspouts affecting areas included in a Coastal Waters Forecast, a Nearshore Marine Forecast, or an Great Lakes Open Lakes Forecast that is not adequately covered by existing marine warnings. Also used for short duration mesoscale events such as a strong cold front, gravity wave, squall line, etc., lasting less than 2 hours and producing winds or gusts of 34 knots or greater.
Special Tropical Disturbance Statement
This statement issued by the National Hurricane Center furnishes information on strong and formative non-depression systems. This statement focuses on the major threat(s) of the disturbance, such as the potential for torrential rainfall on an island or inland area. The statement is coordinated with the appropriate forecast office(s).
Specific Gravity
The ratio of the density of any substance to the density of water.
Specific Humidity
In a system of moist air, the ratio of the mass of water vapor to the total mass of the system.
Specific Yield
In hydrologic terms, the ratio of the water which will drain freely from the material to the total volume of the aquifer formation. This value will always be less than the porosity.
Spectral Density
A radar term for the distribution of power by frequency.
Spectral Wave Density
On a buoy report, energy in (meter*meter)/Hz, for each frequency bin (typically from 0.03 Hz to 0.40 Hz).
Spectral Wave Direction
On a buoy report, mean wave direction, in degrees from true North, for each frequency bin.
Spectrum Width
This WSR-88D radar product depicts a full 360 degree sweep of spectrum width data indicating a measure of velocity dispersion within the radar sample volume. It is available for every elevation angle sampled, it provides a measure of the variability of the mean radial velocity estimates due to wind shear, turbulence, and/or the quality of the velocity samples. It is used to estimate turbulence associated with boundaries, thunderstorms, and mesocyclones; check the reliability of the velocity estimates; and locate boundaries (cold front, outflow, lake breeze, etc.).
Spectrum Width Cross Section
This WSR-88D radar product displays a vertical cross section of spectrum width on a grid with heights up to 70,000 feet on the vertical axis and distance up to 124 nm on the horizontal axis. Two end points to create cross section are radar operator selected along a radial or from one AZRAN to another AZRAN within 124 nm of the radar that are less than 124 nm apart.
It is used to:
1) Verify features on the Reflectivity Cross Section (RCS) and Velocity Cross Section (VCS) and to evaluate the quality of the velocity data
2) Estimate vertical extent of turbulence (aviation use).
Speed Shear
The component of wind shear which is due to a change in wind speed with height, e.g., southwesterly winds of 20 mph at 10,000 feet increasing to 50 mph at 20,000 feet. Speed shear is an important factor in severe weather development, especially in the middle and upper levels of the atmosphere.
SPENES
NESDIS Satellite Precipitation Estimates
Sphere Calibration
Reflectivity calibration of a radar by pointing the dish at a metal sphere of (theoretically) known reflectivity. The sphere is often tethered to a balloon.
Spillway
In hydrologic terms, a structure over or through which excess or flood flows are discharged. If the flow is controlled by gates, it is a controlled spillway, if the elevation of the spillway crest is the only control, it is an uncontrolled spillway.
Spillway Crest
In hydrologic terms, the elevation of the highest point of a spillway.
Spin-Up
Slang for a small-scale vortex initiation, such as what may be seen when a gustnado, landspout, or suction vortex forms.
SPKL
Sprinkle
Split Flow
A flow pattern high in the atmosphere characterized by diverging winds. Storms moving along in this type of flow pattern usually weaken.
Splitting Storm
A thunderstorm which splits into two storms which follow diverging paths (a left mover and a right mover). The left mover typically moves faster than the original storm, the right mover, slower. Of the two, the left mover is most likely to weaken and dissipate (but on rare occasions can become a very severe anticyclonic-rotating storm), while the right mover is the one most likely to reach supercell status.
SPLNS
Southern Plains
Sporadic E
In solar-terrestrial terms, a phenomenon occurring in the E region of the ionosphere, which significantly affects HF radiowave propagation. Sporadic E can occur during daytime or nighttime and it varies markedly with latitude.
SPOTNIL
In solar-terrestrial terms, a spotless disk.
Spotting
Outbreak of secondary fires as firebrands or other burning materials are carried ahead of the main fire line by winds.
Spray
An ensemble of water droplets torn by the wind from an extensive body of water, generally from the crests of waves, and carried up into the air in such quantities that it reduces the horizontal visibility.
SPRD
Spread
Spring
1. The season of the year comprising the transition period from winter to summer occurring when the sun is approaching the summer solstice. In the Northern Hemisphere, spring customarily includes the months of March, April and May.

2. In hydrologic terms, an issue of water from the earth; a natural fountain; a source of a reservoir of water.
Spring Tide
A tide higher than normal which occurs around the time of the new and full moon.
Sprinkle
Very light rain showers. Precipitation measurement is a trace.
SPS
Severe Weather Potential Statement
SQLN
Squall Line
Squall
A strong wind characterized by a sudden onset in which the wind speed increases at least 16 knots and is sustained at 22 knots or more for at least one minute. 2. In nautical use, a severe local storm considered as a whole, that is, winds and cloud mass and (if any) precipitation, thunder and lightning.
Squall Line
A line of active thunderstorms, either continuous or with breaks, including contiguous precipitation areas resulting from the existence of the thunderstorms.
SRF
(Surf Zone Forecast) - A National Weather Service routine or event driven forecast product geared toward non-boating marine users issued for an area extending from the area of water between the high tide level on the beach and the seaward side of the breaking waves.
SRH
Storm-Relative Helicity
SRN
Southern
SS
Sandstorm
SSHS
Saffir/Simpson Hurricane Scale
SST
Sea Surface Temperature
ST
Stratus
St Lawrence Freeze-Up Outlook
A National Weather Service forecast product to keep mariners informed of the projected freeze-up date of ice the St. Lawrence River.
St. Elmo's Fire
The glow on a masthead produced by an extreme buildup of electrical charge. Unprotected mariners should immediately move to shelter when this phenomena occurs. Lightning may strike the mast within five minutes after it begins to glow.
Stability
The degree of resistance of a layer of air to vertical motion.
Stability Index
The overall stability or instability of a sounding is sometimes conveniently expressed in the form of a single numerical value. Used alone, it can be quite misleading, and at times, is apt to be worthless. The greatest value of an index lies in alerting the forecaster to those soundings which should be examined more closely.
Stable
An atmospheric state with warm air above cold air which inhibits the vertical movement of air.
Stable Boundary Layer
The stably-stratified layer that forms at the surface and grows upward, usually at night or in winter, as heat is extracted from the atmosphere's base in response to longwave radiative heat loss from the ground. Stable boundary layers can also form when warm air is advected over a cold surface or over melting ice.
Stable Core
Post-sunrise, elevated remnant of the temperature inversion that has built up overnight within a valley.
Staccato Lightning
A Cloud to Ground (CG) lightning discharge which appears as a single very bright, short-duration stroke, often with considerable branching.
Stage
The level of the water surface of a river or stream above an established datum at a given location.
Stair Stepping
In hydrologic terms, the process of continually updating river forecasts for the purpose of incorporating the effects rain that has fallen since the previous forecast was prepared.
Standard Atmosphere
A hypothetical vertical distribution of atmospheric temperature, pressure, and density that, by international agreement, is taken to be representative of the atmosphere for purposes of pressure altimeter calibrations, aircraft performance calculations, aircraft and missile design, ballistic tables, etc.
Standard Synoptic Times
The times of 0000, 0600, 1200, and 1800 UTC. Also known as the main synoptic times.
State Forecast Product
This National Weather Service product is intended to give a good general picture of what weather may be expected in the state during the next 5 days. The first 2 days of the forecast is much more specific than the last 3 days. In comparison with the Zone Forecast Product, this product will be much more general.
State Weather Roundup
This is a National Weather Service tabular product which provides routine hourly observations within the state through the National Weather Wire Service (NWWS). It gives the current weather condition in one word (cloudy, rain, snow, fog, etc.), the temperature and dew point in Fahrenheit, the relative humidity, wind speed and direction, and finally additional information (wind chill, heat index, a secondary weather condition). These reports are broken up regionally. When the complementary satellite product is not available, reports from unaugmented ASOS stations will report "fair" in the sky/weather column when there are few or no clouds (i.e., scattered or less) below 12,000 feet with no significant weather and/or obstructions to visibility.
Station ID
Five-digit WMO Station Identifier used by the Buoy Data Center since 1976. ID's can be reassigned to future deployments within the same 1 degree square.
Station Model
A specified pattern for plotting, on a weather map, the meteorological symbols that represent the state of the weather at a particular observing station.
Station Pressure
The absolute air pressure at a given reporting station. The air pressure is directly proportional to the combined weight of all air in the atmosphere located in a column directly above the reporting site. Consequently, the station pressure may vary tremendously from one location to another in mountainous regions due to the strong variation of atmospheric pressure with height. Vertical variations of pressure range up to 150 mb per mile whereas horizontal variations are usually less than .1 mb per mile.
Stationary Front
A front between warm and cold air masses that is moving very slowly or not at all.
STBL
Stable
Steam Fog
Fog formed when water vapor is added to air which is much colder than the source of the vapor. It may be formed when very cold air drifts across relatively warm water. At temperatures below about-20°F, ice particles or droxtals may be formed in the air producing a type of ice fog known as frost smoke.
Steepness
In marine terms, on a buoy report, wave steepness is the ratio of wave height to wave length and is an indicator of wave stability. When wave steepness exceeds a 1/7 ratio, the wave becomes unstable and begins to break.
Steering Currents
Same as Steering Winds; a prevailing synoptic scale flow which governs the movement of smaller features embedded within it.
Steering Winds
Same as Steering Currents; A prevailing synoptic scale flow which governs the movement of smaller features embedded within it.
Stepped Leader
A faint, negatively charged channel that emerges from the base of a thunderstorm and propagates toward the ground in a series of steps of about 1 microsecond duration and 50-100 meters in length, initiating a lightning stroke.
STFR
Stratus Fractus
STG
Strong
Stilling basin
In hydrologic terms, a basin constructed to dissipate the energy of fast-flowing water (e.g., from a spillway or bottom outlet), and to protect the streambed from erosion.
STJ
Subtropical Jet - this jet stream is usually found between 20° and 30° latitude at altitudes between 12 and 14 km.
STLT
Satellite
STM
Stratiform
STNRY
Stationary
Stoplogs
In hydrologic terms, large logs, timbers or steel beams placed on top of each other with their ends held in guides on each side of a channel or conduit providing a temporary closure versus a permanent bulkhead gate.
Storm
Any disturbed state of the atmosphere, especially affecting the Earth's surface, and strongly implying destructive and otherwise unpleasant weather. Storms range in scale from tornadoes and thunderstorms to tropical cyclones to synoptic-scale extratropical cyclones.
Storm Data
This National Climatic Data Center (NCDC) monthly publication documents a chronological listing, by states, of occurrences of storms and unusual weather phenomena. Reports contain information on storm paths, deaths, injuries, and property damage. An "Outstanding storms of the month" section highlights severe weather events with photographs, illustrations, and narratives. The December issue includes annual tornado, lightning, flash flood, and tropical cyclone summaries.
Storm Motion
The speed and direction at which a thunderstorm travels.
Storm Relative
Measured relative to a moving thunderstorm, usually referring to winds, wind shear, or helicity.
Storm Relative Mean Radial Velocity Map
(SRM): This WSR-88D radar product depicts a full 360º sweep of radial velocity data with the average motion of all identified storms subtracted out. It is available for every elevation angle sampled. It is used to aid in displaying shear and rotation in storms and storm top divergence that might otherwise be obscured by the storm's motion, investigate the 3-D velocity structure of a storm, and help with determining rotational features in fast and uniform moving storms.
Storm Relative Mean Radial Velocity Regi
(SRR): This WSR-88D radar product depicts a 27 nm by 27 nm region of storm relative mean radial velocity centered on a point which the operator can specify anywhere within a 124 nm radius of the radar. The storm motion subtracted defaults to the motion of the storm closest to the product center, or can be input by the operator. It is used to examine the 3-dimensional storm relative flow of a specific thunderstorm (radar operator centers product on a specific thunderstorm; aid in displaying shear and rotation in thunderstorms and storm top divergence that might otherwise be obscured by storm motion; and gain higher resolution velocity product
Storm Scale
Referring to weather systems with sizes on the order of individual thunderstorms. See synoptic scale and mesoscale.
Storm Surge
An abnormal rise in sea level accompanying a hurricane or other intense storm, whose height is the difference between the observed level of the sea surface and the level that would have occurred in the absence of the cyclone. Storm surge is usually estimated by subtracting the normal or astronomic tide from the observed storm tide.
Storm Tide
The actual level of sea water resulting from the astronomic tide combined with the storm surge. Most NWS flood statements, watches, or warnings quantifying above-normal tides will report the Storm Tide.
Storm Total Precipitation
This radar image is an estimate of accumulated rainfall since the last time there was a one-hour, or more, break in precipitation. It is used to locate flood potential over urban or rural areas, estimate total basin runoff and provide rainfall accumulations for the duration of the event and is available only for the short range (out to 124 nm). To determine accumulated precipitation at greater distances you should link to an adjacent radar.
Storm Tracking Information
This WSR-88D radar product displays the previous, current, and projected locations of storm centroids (forecast and past positions are limited to one hour or less). Forecast tracks are based upon linear extrapolation of past storm centroid positions, and they are intended for application to individual thunderstorms not lines or clusters. It is used to provide storm movement: low track variance and/or 2 or more plotted past positions signify reliable thunderstorm movement.
Storm Warning
A warning of sustained surface winds, or frequent gusts, in the range of 48 knots (55 mph) to 63 knots (73 mph) inclusive, either predicted or occurring, and not directly associated with a tropical cyclone.
Storm Watch
A watch for an increased risk of a storm force wind event for sustained surface winds, or frequent gusts, of 48 knots (55 mph) to 63 knots (73 mph), but its occurrence, location, and/or timing is still uncertain.
Stormwater Discharge
In hydrologic terms, precipitation that does not infiltrate into the ground or evaporate due to impervious land surfaces but instead flows onto adjacent land or water areas and is routed into drain/sewer systems.
Straight-Line Hodograph
The name pretty well describes what it looks like on the hodograph. What causes this shape is a steady increase of winds with height (vertical wind shear). This shape of hodograph favors multicell thunderstorms.
Straight-line Winds
Generally, any wind that is not associated with rotation, used mainly to differentiate them from tornadic winds.
Stratiform
Having extensive horizontal development, as opposed to the more vertical development characteristic of convection. Stratiform clouds cover large areas but show relatively little vertical development. Stratiform precipitation, in general, is relatively continuous and uniform in intensity (i.e., steady rain versus rain showers).
Stratiform Rings and Bands
These occur between the active convective bands of a hurricane outside of the eye wall. Inner stratiform bands often exhibit the bright band aloft, a VIP Level 2, and in the lower layers typically show a VIP Level 1.
Stratocumulus
Low-level clouds, existing in a relatively flat layer but having individual elements. Elements often are arranged in rows, bands, or waves. Stratocumulus often reveals the depth of the moist air at low levels, while the speed of the cloud elements can reveal the strength of the low-level jet.
Stratopause
The boundary between the stratosphere and mesosphere.
Stratosphere
The region of the atmosphere extending from the top of the troposphere to the base of the mesosphere, an important area for monitoring stratospheric ozone.
Stratospheric Ozone
In the stratosphere, ozone has beneficial properties where it forms an ozone shield that prevents dangerous radiation from reaching the Earth's surface. Recently, it was discovered that in certain parts of the world, especially over the poles, stratospheric ozone was disappearing creating an ozone hole.
Stratus
A low, generally gray cloud layer with a fairly uniform base. Stratus may appear in the form of ragged patches, but otherwise does not exhibit individual cloud elements as do cumulus and stratocumulus clouds. Fog usually is a surface-based form of stratus.
Stream line
Arrows on a weather chart showing wind speed and direction. The head of the arrow points toward where the wind is blowing and the length of the arrow is proportional to the wind speed. Sometimes shows wind direction and trajectory only.
Stream Reach
A significant segment of surface water that has similar hydrologic characteristics, such as a stretch of stream/river between two confluences.
Streamflow
In hydrologic terms, water flowing in the stream channel. It is often used interchangeably with discharge.
STRFM
Stratiform
Striations
Grooves or channels in cloud formations, arranged parallel to the flow of air and therefore depicting the airflow relative to the parent cloud. Striations often reveal the presence of rotation, as in the barber pole or "corkscrew" effect often observed with the rotating updraft of a Low Precipitation (LP) storm.
Strike
For any particular location, a hurricane strike occurs if that location passes within the hurricane's strike circle, a circle of 125 n mi diameter, centered 12.5 n mi to the right of the hurricane center (looking in the direction of motion). This circle is meant to depict the typical extent of hurricane force winds, which are approximately 75 n mi to the right of the center and 50 n mi to the left.
Sub-synoptic Low
Essentially the same as mesolow.
Sublimation
The transition of a substance from the solid phase directly to the vapor phase, or vice versa, without passing through an intermediate liquid phase. Thus an ice crystal or icicle sublimes under low relative humidity at temperatures below 0°C. The process is analogous to evaporation of a liquid.
Sublimation of ice
The transition of water from solid to gas without passing through the liquid phase.
Subrefraction
The bending of the radar beam in the vertical which is less than under standard refractive conditions. This causes the beam to be higher than indicated, and lead to the underestimation of cloud heights.
Subsidence
1. A descending motion of air in the atmosphere occurring over a rather broad area.
2. In hydrologic terms, sinking down of part of the earth's crust due to underground excavation, such as the removal of groundwater.
Subsidence Inversion
A temperature inversion that develops aloft as a result of air gradually sinking over a wide area and being warmed by adiabatic compression, usually associated with subtropical high pressure areas.
Substation
A location where observations are taken or other services are furnished by people not located at NWS offices who do not need to be certified to take observations.
Subsurface Storm Flow
In hydrologic terms, the lateral motion of water through the upper layers until it enters a stream channel. This usually takes longer to reach stream channels than runoff. This also called interflow.
Subtle Heavy Rainfall Signature
This heavy rain signature is often difficult to detect on satellite. These warm top thunderstorms are often embedded in a synoptic-scale cyclonic circulation. Normally, they occur when the 500 mb cyclonic circulation is quasi-stationary or moves slowly to the east or northeast (about 2 degrees per 12 hours). The average surface temperature is 68ºF with northeasterly winds. The average precipitable water (P) value is equal to or greater than 1.34 inches and the winds veer with height, but they are relatively light. The heavy rain often occurs north and east of the vorticity maximum across the lower portion of the comma head about 2 to 3 degrees north or northeast of the 850 mb low.
Subtropical Cyclone
A non-frontal low pressure system that has characteristics of both tropical and extratropical cyclones. This system is typically an upper-level cold low with circulation extending to the surface layer and maximum sustained winds generally occurring at a radius of about 100 miles or more from the center. In comparison to tropical cyclones, such systems have a relatively broad zone of maximum winds that is located farther from the center, and typically have a less symmetric wind field and distribution of convection.
Subtropical Depression
A subtropical cyclone in which the maximum 1-minute sustained surface wind is 33 knots (38 mph) or less.
Subtropical Jet
(Abbrev. STJ) - this jet stream is usually found between 20° and 30° latitude at altitudes between 12 and 14 km.
Subtropical Storm
A subtropical cyclone in which the maximum 1-minute sustained surface wind is 34 knots (39 mph) or more.
Suction Vortex
A small but very intense vortex within a tornado circulation. Several suction vortices typically are present in a multiple-vortex tornado. Much of the extreme damage associated with violent tornadoes (F4 and F5 on the Fujita scale) is attributed to suction vortices.
Sudden Commencement (SC)
In solar-terrestrial terms, an abrupt increase or decrease in the northward component of the geomagnetic field, which marks the beginning of a geomagnetic storm.
Sudden Impulse (SI+ or SI-)
In solar-terrestrial terms, a sudden perturbation of several gammas in the northward component of the low-latitude geomagnetic field, not associated with a following geomagnetic storm. (An SI becomes an SC if a storm follows.)
Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance (SID)
In solar-terrestrial terms, HF propagation anomalies due to ionospheric changes resulting from solar flares, proton events and geomagnetic storms.
SUF
Sufficient
Summation Principle
This principle states that the sky cover at any level is equal to the summation of the sky cover of the lowest layer plus the additional sky cover provided at all successively higher layers up to and including the layer in question.
Summer
Typically the warmest season of the year during which the sun is most nearly overhead. In the Northern Hemisphere, summer customarily includes the months of June, July, and August.
Summer Solstice
The time at which the sun is farthest north in the Northern Hemisphere, on or around June 21.
Sun Dog
see Parhelion
Sun Pillar
A bright column above or below the sun produced by the reflection of sunlight from ice crystals.
Sun Pointing
Alignment of the radar antenna by locating the position of the sun in the sky, which has an exactly known position given the radar's location and the present time. This may be necessary to verify that when we think we're pointing "north", we actually are! The sun's signal is usually several dB above the background noise, and this technique is also sometimes used to examine the receiver sensitivity.
Sunny
When there are no opaque (not transparent) clouds. Same as Clear.
Sunrise
The phenomenon of the sun's daily appearance on the eastern horizon as a result of the earth's rotation. The word is often used to refer to the time at which the first part of the sun becomes visible in the morning at a given location.
Sunset
The phenomenon of the sun's daily disappearance below the western horizon as a result of the earth's rotation. The word is often used to refer to the time at which the last part of the sun disappears below the horizon in the evening at a given location.
Sunspot
In solar-terrestrial terms, an area seen as a dark spot on the photosphere of the sun. Sunspots are concentrations of magnetic flux, typically occurring in bipolar clusters or groups. They appear dark because they are cooler than the surrounding photosphere.
Sunspot Group Classification
  • A: A small single unipolar sunspot or very small group of spots without penumbra.
  • B: Bipolar sunspot group with no penumbra.
  • C: An elongated bipolar sunspot group. One sunspot must have penumbra.
  • D: An elongated bipolar sunspot group with penumbra on both ends of the group.
  • E: An elongated bipolar sunspot group with penumbra on both ends. Longitudinal extent of penumbra exceeds 10 deg. but not 15 deg.
  • F: An elongated bipolar sunspot group with penumbra on both ends. Longitudinal extent of penumbra exceeds 15 deg.
  • H: A unipolar sunspot group with penumbra.
Sunspot Number
In solar-terrestrial terms, a daily index of sunspot activity (R), defined as R = k (10 g + s) where S = number of individual spots, g = number of sunspot groups, and k is an observatory factor.
Super Typhoon
Typhoon having maximum sustained winds of 130 knots (150 mph) or greater.
Supercell
Short reference to Supercell Thunderstorm; potentially the most dangerous of the convective storm types. Storms possessing this structure have been observed to generate the vast majority of long-lived strong and violent (F2-F5) tornadoes, as well as downburst damage and large hail. It is defined as a thunderstorm consisting of one quasi-steady to rotating updraft which may exist for several hours.
Supercell Thunderstorm
Potentially the most dangerous of the convective storm types. Storms possessing this structure have been observed to generate the vast majority of long-lived strong and violent (F2-F5) tornadoes, as well as downburst damage and large hail. It is defined as a thunderstorm consisting of one quasi-steady to rotating updraft which may exist for several hours. Supercells usually move to the right of the mean wind. These are called "Right Movers" and they are favored with veering winds. Occasionally, these thunderstorms will move to the left of the mean wind. These thunderstorms are called "Left Movers". These supercells typically don't last as long as their "Right Mover" cousins and they usually only produce large hail (greater than 3/4 inch in diameter) and severe wind gusts in the excess of 58 miles an hour. Left Movers are favored when you have backing winds.

Radar will observe essentially one long-lived cell, but small perturbations to the cell structure may be evident. The stronger the updraft, the better the chance that the supercell will produce severe (hail greater than 3/4 inch in diameter, wind gusts greater than 58 miles an hour, and possibly a tornado) weather.

Severe supercell development is most likely in an environment possessing great buoyancy (CAPE) and large vertical wind shear. A Bulk Richardson Number of between 15 and 35 favor supercell development. Typically, the hodograph will look like a horse shoe. This is due to the wind speed increasing rapidly with height and the wind direction either veering or backing rapidly with height.
Supercool
To cool a liquid below its freezing point without solidification or crystallization.
Supercooled Liquid Water
In the atmosphere, liquid water can survive at temperatures colder than 0 degrees Celsius; many vigorous storms contain large amounts of supercooled liquid water at cold temperatures. Important in the formation of graupel and hail.
Superrefraction
Bending of the radar beam in the vertical which is greater than sub-standard refractive conditions. This causes the beam to be lower than indicated, and often results in extensive ground clutter as well as an overestimation of cloud top heights.
Surcharge Capacity
In hydrologic terms, the volume of a reservoir between the maximum water surface elevation for which the dam is designed and the crest of an uncontrolled spillway, or the normal full-pool elevation of the reservoir with the crest gates in the normal closed position.
Surf Zone
Area of water between the high tide level on the beach and the seaward side of the breaking waves.
Surf Zone Forecast
(SRF) - A National Weather Service routine or event driven forecast product geared toward non-boating marine users issued for an area extending from the area of water between the high tide level on the beach and the seaward side of the breaking waves.
Surface Energy Budget
The energy or heat budget at the earth's surface, considered in terms of the fluxes through a plane at the earth-atmosphere interface. The energy budget includes radiative, sensible, latent and ground heat fluxes.
Surface impoundment
In hydrologic terms, an indented area in the land's surface, such as a pit, pond, or lagoon.
Surface Runoff
In hydrologic terms, the runoff that travels overland to the stream channel. Rain that falls on the stream channel is often lumped with this quantity.
Surface Water
Water that flows in streams and rivers and in natural lakes, in wetlands, and in reservoirs constructed by humans.
Surface Weather Chart
An analyzed synoptic chart of surface weather observations. A surface chart shows the distribution of sea-level pressure (therefore, the position of highs, lows, ridges and troughs) and the location and nature of fronts and air masses. Often added to this are symbols for occurring weather phenomena. Although the pressure is referred to mean sea level, all other elements on this chart are presented as they occur at the surface point of observation.
Surface-based Convection
Convection occurring within a surface-based layer, i.e., a layer in which the lowest portion is based at or very near the earth's surface. Compare with elevated convection.
Surge
In solar-terrestrial terms, a jet of material from active regions that reaches coronal heights and then either fades or returns into the chromosphere along the trajectory of ascent.
Sustained Overdraft
In hydrologic terms, long-term withdrawal from the aquifer of more water than is being recharged.
Sustained Wind
Wind speed determined by averaging observed values over a two-minute period.
SVR
1. Severe

2. Abbreviation for Severe Thunderstorm Warning
SVRL
Several
SW
1. Southwest

2. Snow Showers
SWD
On a buoy report, Swell Direction is the compass direction from which the swell wave are coming from.
SWE
Snow Water Equivalent (the amount of water content in a snowpack or snowfall).
SWEAT
Severe Weather ThrEAT index; a stability index developed by the Air Force which incorporates instability, wind shear, and wind speeds as follows:

SWEAT=(12 Td 850 ) + (20 [TT-49]) +( 2 f 850) + f 500 + (125 [s+0.2]) where
  • Td 850 is the dew point temperature at 850 mb,
  • TT is the total-totals index,
  • f 850 is the 850-mb wind speed (in knots),
  • f 500 is the 500-mb wind speed (in knots), and
  • s is the sine of the angle between the wind directions at 500 mb and 850 mb (thus representing the directional shear in this layer).

SWEAT values of about 250-300 or more indicate a greater potential for severe weather, but as with all stability indices, there are no magic numbers.

The SWEAT index has the advantage (and disadvantage) of using only mandatory-level data (i.e., 500 mb and 850 mb), but has fallen into relative disuse with the advent of more detailed upper air sounding analysis programs.
Swell
Wind-generated waves that have travelled out of their generating area. Swells characteristically exhibit smoother, more regular and uniform crests and a longer period than wind waves.
Swell Direction
The direction from which the swells are propagating.
SWH
On a buoy report, swell height is the vertical distance (meters) between any swell crest and the succeeding swell wave trough.
SWLY
Southwesterly
SWODY1
The Day-1 Convective Outlook, sometimes called the "AC" is a guidance product issued by the Operational Guidance Branch (OGB) unit of the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) in Norman, Oklahoma. The Day 1 outlook outlines areas in the continental United States where severe thunderstorms may develop during the next 6 to 30 hours.
SWODY2
The Day 2 Convective Outlook is very similar to the Day 1 Outlook. It is issued only twice a day, at 08Z and 18Z, and covers the period from 12Z the following day to 12Z the day after that. For example, if today is Monday then the Day 2 Outlook will cover the period 12Z Tuesday to 12Z Wednesday. The outlook issued at 08Z now qualifies the degree of risk like the Day 1 has (i.e. SLGT, MDT, and HIGH risk areas). The Day 2 Outlook has also includes a general thunderstorm outline.
SWP
On a buoy report, Swell Period is the time (usually measured in seconds) that it takes successive swell wave crests or troughs pass a fixed point.
SWRN
Southwestern
SWS
Severe Weather Statement
SWWD
Southwestward
SX
Stability Index
SXN
Section
Symmetric Double Eye
A concentrated ring of convection that develops outside the eye wall in symmetric, mature hurricanes. The ring then propagates inward and leads to a double-eye. Eventually, the inner eye wall dissipates while the outer intensifies and moves inward.
Synchronous Detection
Radar processing that retains the received signal amplitude and phase but that removes the intermediate frequency carrier.
SYNOP
Synoptic - relating to the general weather pattern over a wide region, such as areas of high and low pressure or frontal boundaries, as opposed to mesoscale or smaller features such as a thunderstorm.
Synopsis
A broad discussion of the weather pattern expected across any given area, generally confined to the 0-48 hour time frame.
Synoptic Code
Rules and procedures established by the World Meteorological Organization(WMO) for encoding weather observations.
Synoptic Scale
The spatial scale of the migratory high and low pressure systems of the lower troposphere, with wavelengths of 1000 to 2500 km.
Synoptic Track
Weather reconnaissance mission flown to provide vital meteorological information in data sparse ocean areas as a supplement to existing surface, radar, and satellite data. Synoptic flights better define the upper atmosphere and aid in the prediction of tropical cyclone development and movement.
Synoptic Weather
Weather occurring over a wide region on time scales exceeding 12 hours.
SYNS
Synopsis
Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
A radar mounted on a moving platform (aircraft or satellite) used for imaging. Since the radar antenna moves a significant distance between transmission and receiving the signal back, the radar antenna acts as if it is larger than its physical dimensions, providing better range and azimuth resolution.
Synthetic Aperture Radar River Ice Surveillance (SARRIS)
An experimental river ice mapping experiment using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).
SYS
System
Syzygy
In solar-terrestrial terms, the instance (new moon or full moon) when the earth, sun, and moon are all in a straight line.
T Rolls
Transverse Rolls - elongated low-level clouds, arranged in parallel bands and aligned parallel to the low-level winds but perpendicular to the mid-level flow. Transverse rolls are one type of transverse band, and often indicate an environment favorable for the subsequent development of supercells. Since they are aligned parallel to the low-level inflow, they may point toward the region most likely for later storm development.
Temperature Inversion
(surface-based or elevated) : a layer of the atmosphere in which air temperature increases with height. When the layer's base is at the surface, the layer is called a surface-based temperature inversion; when the base of the layer is above the surface, the layer is called an elevated temperature inversion.
TEMPS
temperatures
Terminal Aerodrome Forecast
This NWS aviation product is a concise statement of the expected meteorological conditions at an airport during a specified period (usually 24 hours). Each country is allowed to make modifications or exceptions to the code for use in each particular country. TAFs use the same weather code found in METAR weather reports.
Texas Hooker
Same as Panhandle Hook - low pressure systems that originate in the panhandle region of Texas and Oklahoma which initially move east and then "hook" or recurve more northeast toward the upper Midwest or Great Lakes region. In winter, these systems usually deposit heavy snows north of their surface track. Thunderstorms may be found south of the track.
Thermistor
A resistor whose resistance changes with temperature. Because of the known dependence of resistance on temperature, the resistor can be used as a temperature sensor.
Thermodynamics
In general, the relationships between heat and other properties (such as temperature, pressure, density, etc.) In forecast discussions, thermodynamics usually refers to the distribution of temperature and moisture (both vertical and horizontal) as related to the diagnosis of atmospheric instability.
Thermosphere
The atmospheric shell extending from the top of the mesosphere to outer space. It is a region of more or less steadily increasing temperature with height, starting at 70 or 80 km.
Threshold Runoff
In hydrologic terms, the runoff in inches from a rain of specified duration that causes a small stream to slightly exceed bankfull. When available, flood stage is used instead of slightly over bankfull.
THSD
Thousand
Thunderstorm
A local storm produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and accompanied by lightning and thunder.
Tides
The periodic (occurring at regular intervals) variations in the surface water level of the oceans, bays, gulfs, and inlets. Tides are the result of the gravitiational attraction of the sun and the moon on the earth. The attraction of the moon is far greater than the attraction of the sun due to the close proximity of the earth and the moon. The sun is 360 times further from the earth than the moon. Therefore, the moon plays a larger role than the sun in producing tides. Every 27.3 days, the earth and the moon revolve around a common point. This means that the oceans and other water bodies which are affected by the earth-moon system experience a new tidal cycle every 27.3 days. Because of the physical processes which occur to produce the tidal system, there are two high tides and two low tides each day. Because of the angle of the moon with respect to the earth, the two high tides each day do not have to be of equal height. The same holds true for the two low tides each day. Tides also differ in height on a daily basis. The daily differences between tidal heights is due to the changing distance between the earth and the moon. Scientists use measurements of the height of the water level to examine tides and the various phenomena which influence tides, such as hurricanes and winter storms.
Tilt Sequence
Radar term indicating that the radar antenna is scanning through a series of antenna elevations in order to obtain a volume scan.
Tilted Storm
A thunderstorm or cloud tower which is not purely vertical but instead exhibits a slanted or tilted character. It is a sign of vertical wind shear, a favorable condition for severe storm development.
Tornado Vortex Signature
An image of a tornado on the Doppler radar screen that shows up as a small region of rapidly changing wind speeds inside a mesocyclone. The following velocity criteria is normally required for recognition: velocity difference between maximum inbound and outbound (shear) is greater than or equal to 90 knots at less than 30 nmi and is greater than or equal to 70 knots between 30 and 55 nmi. It shows up as a red upside down triangle on the Storm Relative Velocity Display. Existence of a TVS strongly increases the probability of tornado occurrence, but does not guarantee it; therefore, the feature triggering it must be examined closely by the radar operator. A TVS is not a visually observable feature.
Total-Totals Index
A stability index and severe weather forecast tool, equal to the temperature at 850 mb plus the dew point at 850 mb, minus twice the temperature at 500 mb. The total-totals index is the arithmetic sum of two other indices: the Vertical Totals Index (temperature at 850 mb minus temperature at 500 mb) and the Cross Totals Index (dew point at 850 mb minus temperature at 500 mb). As with all stability indices there are no magic threshold values, but in general, values of less than 50 or greater than 55 are considered weak and strong indicators, respectively, of potential severe storm development.
Towering Cumulus
A large cumulus cloud with great vertical development, usually with a cauliflower-like appearance, but lacking the characteristic anvil of a Cb. (Often shortened to "towering cu," and abbreviated TCU.)
Trade Winds
Persistent tropical winds that blow from the subtropical high pressure centers towards the equatorial low.
Transmitter
The radar equipment used for generating and amplifying a radio frequency (RF) carrier signal, modulating the carrier signal with intelligence, and feeding the modulated carrier to an antenna for radiation into space as electromagnetic waves. Weather radar transmitters are usually magnetrons or klystrons.
Transpiration
Water discharged into the atmosphere from plant surfaces.
Transport Wind
The average wind over a specified period of time within a mixed layer near the surface of the earth.
Transverse Bands
Bands of clouds oriented perpendicular to the flow in which they are embedded. They often are seen best on satellite photographs. When observed at high levels (i.e., in cirrus formations), they may indicate severe or extreme turbulence. Transverse bands observed at low levels (called transverse rolls or T rolls) often indicate the presence of a temperature inversion (or cap) as well as directional shear in the low- to mid-level winds. These conditions often favor the development of strong to severe thunderstorms.
Transverse Rolls
Elongated low-level clouds, arranged in parallel bands and aligned parallel to the low-level winds but perpendicular to the mid-level flow. Transverse rolls are one type of transverse band, and often indicate an environment favorable for the subsequent development of supercells. Since they are aligned parallel to the low-level inflow, they may point toward the region most likely for later storm development.
Tropical Advisory
Official information issued by tropical cyclone warning centers describing all tropical cyclone watches and warnings in effect along with details concerning tropical cyclone locations, intensity and movement, and precautions that should be taken. Advisories are also issued to describe: (a) tropical cyclones prior to issuance of watches and warnings and (b) subtropical cyclones.
Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch
One of three branches of the Tropical Prediction Center (TPC). It provides year-round products involving marine forecasting, aviation forecasts and warnings (SIGMETs), and surface analyses. The unit also provides satellite interpretation and satellite rainfall estimates for the international community. In addition, TAFB provides support to NHC through manpower and tropical cyclone intensity estimates from the Dvorak technique.
Tropical Cyclone Position Estimate
The National Hurricane Center issues a position estimate between scheduled advisories whenever the storm center is within 200 nautical miles of U.S. land-based weather radar and if sufficient and regular radar reports are available to the hurricane center. As far as is possible, the position estimate is issued hourly near the beginning of the hour. The location of the eye or storm center is given in map coordinates and distance and direction from a well-known point.
Tropical Depression
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum 1-minute sustained surface wind is 33 knots (38 mph) or less.
Tropical Disturbance
A discrete tropical weather system of apparently organized convection--generally 100 to 300 mi in diameter--originating in the tropics or subtropics, having a nonfrontal migratory character and maintaining its identity for 24 hours or more. It may or may not be associated with a detectable perturbation of the wind field.
Tropical Storm
A tropical cyclone in which the maximum 1-minute sustained surface wind ranges from 34 to 63 knots (39 to 73 mph) inclusive.
Tropical Storm Summary
Written by the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center* (HPC) after subtropical and names tropical cyclones have moved inland and advisories have been discontinued. These advisories will be terminated when the threat of flash flooding has ended or when the remnants of these storms can no longer be distinguished from other synoptic features capable of producing flash floods. Storm summaries will not be issued for storms that enter the coast of Mexico and do not pose an immediate flash flood threat to the coterminous United States. They will be initiated when and if flash flood watches are posted in the United States because of an approaching system. Storm summaries will continue to be numbered in sequence with tropical cyclone advisories and will reference the former storm's name in the text. Summaries will be issued at 0100, 0700, 1300, and 1900 Eastern Daylight Time (EDT). The only exception will be the first one in the series may be issued at a nonscheduled time.
Tropical Storm Warning
An announcement that tropical storm conditions (sustained winds of 39 to 73 mph) are expected somewhere within the specified coastal area within 36 hours.
Tropical Storm Watch
An announcement that tropical storm conditions (sustained winds of 39 to 73 mph) are possible within the specified coastal area within 48 hours.
Tropical Weather Discussion
These messages are issued 4 times daily by the Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch (TAFB) to describe significant synoptic weather features in the tropics. One message will cover the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean, and the Atlantic between the equator and 32 degrees North and east of 140 degrees West. Plain language is used in these discussions.
Tropical Weather Summary
The National Hurricane Center issues a monthly summary of tropical weather is included at the end of the month or as soon as feasible thereafter, to describe briefly the past activity or lack thereof and the reasons why.
Tropics
Areas of the Earth within 20° North and South of the equator.
Tropopause
The upper boundary of the troposphere, usually characterized by an abrupt change in lapse rate from positive (decreasing temperature with height) to neutral or negative (temperature constant or increasing with height).
Tropopause Jet
Type of jet stream found near the tropopause. Examples of this type of jet are the subtropical and polar fronts.
Troposphere
The layer of the atmosphere from the earth's surface up to the tropopause, characterized by decreasing temperature with height (except, perhaps, in thin layers - see inversion, cap), vertical wind motion, appreciable water vapor content, and sensible weather (clouds, rain, etc.).
TS
Tropical Storm
TSRA
Thunderstorms with rain
TSTM
Thunderstorm
Tsunami
A series of long-period waves (on the order of tens of minutes) that are usually generated by an impulsive disturbance that displaces massive amounts of water, such as an earthquake occurring on or near the sea floor. Underwater volcanic eruptions and landslides can also cause tsunami. The resultant waves much the same as waves propagating in a calm pond after a rock is tossed. While traveling in the deep oceans, tsunami have extremely long wavelengths, often exceeding 50 nm, with small amplitudes (a few tens of centimeters) and negligible wave steepness, which in the open ocean would cause nothing more than a gentle rise and fall for most vessels, and possibly go unnoticed. Tsunami travel at very high speeds, sometimes in excess of 400 knots. Across the open oceans, these high-speed waves lose very little energy. As tsunami reach the shallow waters near the coast, they begin to slow down while gradually growing steeper, due to the decreasing water depth. The building walls of destruction can become extremely large in height, reaching tens of meters 30 feet or more as they reach the shoreline. The effects can be further amplified where a bay, harbor, or lagoon funnels the waves as they move inland. Large tsunami have been known to rise to over 100 feet! The amount of water and energy contained in tsunami can have devastating effects on coastal areas.
Tsunami Advisory
For products of the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC - Pacific (except Alaska, British Columbia and Western States) Hawaii, Caribbean (except Puerto Rico, Virgin Is.), Indian Ocean): The third highest level of tsunami alert. Advisories are issued to coastal populations within areas not currently in either warning or watch status when a tsunami warning has been issued for another region of the same ocean. An Advisory indicates that an area is either outside the current warning and watch regions or that the tsunami poses no danger to that area. The Center will continue to monitor the event, issuing updates at least hourly. As conditions warrant, the Advisory will either be continued, upgraded to a watch or warning, or ended. For products of the West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC - Alaska, British Columbia and Western States, Canada, Eastern and Gulf States, Puerto Rico, U.S Virgin Islands): A tsunami advisory is issued due to the threat of a potential tsunami which may produce strong currents or waves dangerous to those in or near the water. Coastal regions historically prone to damage due to strong currents induced by tsunamis are at the greatest risk. The threat may continue for several hours after the arrival of the initial wave, but significant widespread inundation is not expected for areas under an advisory. Appropriate actions to be taken by local officials may include closing beaches, evacuating harbors and marinas, and the repositioning of ships to deep waters when there is time to safely do so. Advisories are normally updated to continue the advisory, expand/contract affected areas, upgrade to a warning, or cancel the advisory.
Tsunami Information Statement
A tsunami information statement is issued to inform emergency management officials and the public that an earthquake has occurred, or that a tsunami warning, watch or advisory has been issued for another section of the ocean. In most cases, information statements are issued to indicate there is no threat of a destructive tsunami and to prevent unnecessary evacuations as the earthquake may have been felt in coastal areas. An information statement may, in appropriate situations, caution about the possibility of destructive local tsunamis. Information statements may be re-issued with additional information, though normally these messages are not updated. However, a watch, advisory or warning may be issued for the area, if necessary, after analysis and/or updated information becomes available.
Tsunami Warning
For products of the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC - Pacific (except Alaska, British Columbia and Western States) Hawaii, Caribbean (except Puerto Rico, Virgin Is.), Indian Ocean): The highest level of tsunami alert. Warnings are issued due to the imminent threat of a tsunami from a large undersea earthquake or following confirmation that a potentially destructive tsunami is underway. They may initially be based only on seismic information as a means of providing the earliest possible alert. Warnings advise that appropriate actions be taken in response to the tsunami threat. Such actions could include the evacuation of low-lying coastal areas and the movement of boats and ships out of harbors to deep water. Warnings are updated at least hourly or as conditions warrant to continue, expand, restrict, or end the warning. For products of the West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC - Alaska, British Columbia and Western States, Canada, Eastern and Gulf States, Puerto Rico, U.S Virgin Islands): A tsunami warning is issued when a potential tsunami with significant widespread inundation is imminent or expected. Warnings alert the public that widespread, dangerous coastal flooding accompanied by powerful currents is possible and may continue for several hours after arrival of the initial wave. Warnings also alert emergency management officials to take action for the entire tsunami hazard zone. Appropriate actions to be taken by local officials may include the evacuation of low-lying coastal areas, and the repositioning of ships to deep waters when there is time to safely do so. Warnings may be updated, adjusted geographically, downgraded, or canceled. To provide the earliest possible alert, initial warnings are normally based only on seismic information.
Tsunami Watch
For products of the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC - Pacific (except Alaska, British Columbia and Western States) Hawaii, Caribbean (except Puerto Rico, Virgin Is.), Indian Ocean): The second highest level of tsunami alert. Watches are issued based on seismic information without confirmation that a destructive tsunami is underway. It is issued as a means of providing an advance alert to areas that could be impacted by destructive tsunami waves. Watches are updated at least hourly to continue them, expand their coverage, upgrade them to a Warning, or end the alert. A Watch for a particular area may be included in the text of the message that disseminates a Warning for another area. For products of the West Coast/Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (WC/ATWC - Alaska, British Columbia and Western States, Canada, Eastern and Gulf States, Puerto Rico, U.S Virgin Islands): A tsunami watch is issued to alert emergency management officials and the public of an event which may later impact the watch area. The watch area may be upgraded to a warning or advisory - or canceled - based on updated information and analysis. Therefore, emergency management officials and the public should prepare to take action. Watches are normally issued based on seismic information without confirmation that a destructive tsunami is underway.
TVS
Tornadic Vortex Signature- Doppler radar signature in the radial velocity field indicating intense, concentrated rotation - more so than a mesocyclone. Like the mesocyclone, specific criteria involving strength, vertical depth, and time continuity must be met in order for a signature to become a TVS. Existence of a TVS strongly increases the probability of tornado occurrence, but does not guarantee it. A TVS is not a visually observable feature.
Twister
In the United States, a colloquial term for a tornado.
Typhoon Season
The part of the year having a relatively high incidence of tropical cyclones. In the western North Pacific, the typhoon season is from July 1 to December 15. Tropical cyclones can occur year-round in any basin.
U Burst
In solar-terrestrial terms, a fast radio burst spectrum of a flare. It has a U-shaped appear- ance in an intensity-vs.-frequency plot
U.S. Geological Survey
(Abbrev. USGS)- The Federal Agency chartered in 1879 by congress to classify public lands, and to examine the geologic structure, mineral resources, and products of the national domain. As part of its mission, the USGS provides information and data on the Nation’s rivers and streams that are useful for mitigation of hazards associated with floods and droughts.
Undersun
An optical effect seen by an observer above a cloud deck when looking toward the sun, as sunlight is reflected upwards off the faces of ice crystals in the cloud deck. [Also known as subsun.]
Unit Control Position
The WSR-88D radar operator uses this to control the entire radar system. One of the main things that the radar operator will do at the UCP is change volume scan strategies of the antenna. These volume scan strategies tell the radar how many elevation angles will be used during a single volume scan (a volume scan is the completion of a sequence of elevation angles), and the amount of time it will take to complete that sequence of elevation cuts, each one being a single rotation of the antenna's 1 degree beam at selected elevation angles. The WSR-88D uses 3 scan strategies. They are the following: 14 elevation angles in 5 minutes (this is used during severe weather situations), 9 elevation angles in 6 minutes (this is used when there is precipitation within 248 nautical miles of the radar), and 5 elevation angles in 10 minutes (this is used when there is no precipitation within 248 nautical miles). The radar operator at the UCP can also adjust the radar products and help the users out with their communication problems.
United States Drought Monitor (USDM)
A multi-agency product that defines and highlights the severity of drought across the ConUS and OConUS based on expert interpretation of a multitude of indices.
Universal Geographic Code
(UGC) - UGC's, (e.g. ANZ300 for Western Long Island Sound) are used in many National Weather Service text products to provide geographical information. This allows users easy automated processing and redistribution of the information. More specifically, the purpose of the UGC are to specify the affected geographic area of the event, typically by state, county (or parish), or unique NWS zone (land and marine). The only exception to the above is to define the weather synopsis part of certain marine products.
Universal Time (UT)
By international agreement, the local time at the prime meridian, which passes through Greenwich, England. Prior to 1972, this time was called Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) but is now referred to as Coordinated Universal Time or Universal Time Coordinated (UTC). It is a coordinated time scale, maintained by the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures (BIPM). It is also known a "Z time" or "Zulu Time".

More about UTC, and a table to convert UTC to your local time is posted at: http://www.srh.noaa.gov/srh/jetstream/doppler/radarfaq.htm#utc
UNSBL
Unseasonable
Unsettled
In meteorological use: A colloquial term used to describe a condition in the atmosphere conducive to precipitation. This term typically is associated with the passage of surface or upper level low pressure systems, fronts or other phenomenon when precipitation expected.

In solar-terrestrial use: With regard to geomagnetic levels, a descriptive word specifically meaning that 8 is less than or equal to the Ap Index which is less than or equal to 15.
Unstable Air
Air that is able to rise easily, and has the potential to produce clouds, rain, and thunderstorms.
UNSTBL
Unstable
Upper Level Disturbance
A disturbance in the upper atmospheric flow pattern which is usually associated with clouds and precipitation. This disturbance is characterized by distinct cyclonic flow, a pocket of cold air, and sometimes a jet streak. These features make the air aloft more unstable and conducive to clouds and precipitation.
Upper Level System
A general term for any large-scale or mesoscale disturbance capable of producing upward motion (lift) in the middle or upper parts of the atmosphere. This term sometimes is used interchangeably with impulse or shortwave.
Upslope Flow
Same as Orographic Lifting; air that flows toward higher terrain, and hence is forced to rise. The added lift often results in widespread low cloudiness and stratiform precipitation if the air is stable, or an increased chance of thunderstorm development if the air is unstable.
Upslope Fog
A fog that forms when moist, stable air is carried up a mountain slope.
UPSLP
Upslope
Upstream
Towards the source of flow, or located in the area from which the flow is coming.
Upstream Slope
The part of the dam which is in contact with the reservoir water. On earthen dams, this slope must be protected from the erosive action of waves by rock riprap or concrete.
UPSTRM
Upstream
Urban and Small Stream Flood Advisory
This advisory alerts the public to flooding which is generally only an inconvenience (not life-threatening) to those living in the affected area. Issued when heavy rain will cause flooding of streets and low-lying places in urban areas. Also used if small rural or urban streams are expected to reach or exceed bankfull. Some damage to homes or roads could occur.
Urban and Small Stream Flooding
Flooding of small streams, streets, and low-lying areas, such as railroad underpasses and urban storm drains. This type of flooding is mainly an inconvenience and is generally not life threatening nor is it significantly damaging to property.
Urban Flash Flood Guidance
A specific type of flash flood guidance which estimates the average amount of rain needed over an urban area during a specified period of time to initiate flooding on small, ungaged streams in the urban area.
Urban Heat Island
The increased air temperatures in urban areas in contrast to cooler surrounding rural areas.
UWNDS
Upper Winds
Vadose Zone
The locus of points just above the water table where soil pores may either contain air or water. This is also called the zone of aeration
Vapor Pressure
The partial pressure of water vapor in an air-water system.
Veering Winds
Winds which shift in a clockwise direction with time at a given location (e.g., from southerly to westerly), or which change direction in a clockwise sense with height (e.g., southeasterly at the surface turning to southwesterly aloft). The latter example is a form of directional shear which is important for tornado formation. Compare with backing winds.
Velocity Azimuth Display
A WSR 88-D product which shows the radar derived wind speeds at various heights. This radar product shows the wind speeds from 2,000 to 55,000 feet above the ground. VAD and EVAD (Extended VAD) are methods of guessing the large scale two-dimensional winds from one-dimensional radial velocity data. They are essentially multivariate regressions which fit a simple, large scale wind model to the observed winds. EVAD also estimates the large scale horizontal divergence and particle fall speed. See VWP.
Velocity Cross Section
This WSR-88D radar product displays a vertical cross section of velocity on a grid with heights up to 70,000 feet on the vertical axis and distance up to 124 nm on the horizontal axis. The two end points to create cross section are radar operator selected along a radial or from one AZRAN to another AZRAN within 124 nm of the radar that are less than 124 nm apart.
It is used to:
1) Examine storm structure features such as location of updrafts/downdrafts, strength of storm top divergence, and the depth of mesocyclones;
2) Locate areas of convergence/divergence (when generated along a radial; and
3) Analyze areas of rotation (when generated from one AZRAN to another).
Velocity Zones
In hydrologic terms, areas within the floodplain subject to potential high damage from waves. These sometimes appear on flood insurance rate maps
Vertical Wind Shear
the change in the wind's direction and speed with height. This is a critical factor in determining whether severe thunderstorms will develop.
Vertically Stacked System
A low-pressure system, usually a closed low or cutoff low, which is not tilted with height, i.e., located similarly at all levels of the atmosphere. Such systems typically are weakening and are slow-moving, and are less likely to produce severe weather than tilted systems. However, cold pools aloft associated with vertically-stacked systems may enhance instability enough to produce severe weather.
VIS
1. Visible satellite imagery

2. Visibile or Visibility
Visibility
The distance at which a given standard object can be seen and identified with the unaided eye
Visibility Protection Program
The program specified by the Clean Air Act to achieve a national goal of remedying existing impairments to visibility and preventing future visibility impairment throughout the United States.
Visible Infra-Red Imaging Radiometer (VIIRS)
A medium-resolution sensor flown aboard the NOAA-20 and Suomi-NP satellites.
Visible Satellite Imagery
This type of satellite imagery uses reflected sunlight (this is actually reflected solar radiation) to see things in the atmosphere and on the Earth's surface. Clouds and fresh snow are excellent reflectors, so they appear white on the imagery. Clouds can be distinguished from snow, because clouds move and snow does not move. Meanwhile, the ground reflects less sunlight, so it appears black on the imagery. The satellite uses its 0.55 to 0.75 micrometer (um) channel to detect this reflected sunlight. Since this imagery relies on reflected imagery, it cannot be used during night.
Visual Spectrum
The portion of the electromagnetic spectrum to which the eye is sensitive, i.e., light with wavelengths between 0.4 and 0.7 micrometers. Compare shortwave radiation and longwave radiation.
Volcanic Ash
Fine particles of mineral matter from a volcanic eruption which can be dispersed long distances by winds aloft. The chemical composition and abrasiveness of the particles can seriously affect aircraft and also machinery on the ground. If it is blown into the stratosphere and it is thick enough, it can decrease the global temperature.
Volume Scan
A radar scanning strategy in which sweeps are made at successive antenna elevations (i.e., a tilt sequence), and then combined to obtain the three-dimensional structure of the echoes.
Volume Velocity Processing
A way to guess the large-scale 2-dimensional winds, divergence and fall speeds from one-dimensional radial velocity data. Essentially a multivariate regression which fits a simple wind model to the observed radial velocities. Very similar to VAD and EVAD, except it uses different functions for the fit.
Voluntary Observing Ship Program
(VOS) - An international voluntary marine observation program under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Observations are coded in a special format known as the ships synoptic code, or "BBXX" format. They are then distributed for use by meteorologists in weather forecasting, by oceanographers, ship routing services, fishermen, and many others.
VOS
(Voluntary Observing Ship Program) - An international voluntary marine observation program under the auspices of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Observations are coded in a special format known as the ships synoptic code, or "BBXX" format. They are then distributed for use by meteorologists in weather forecasting, by oceanographers, ship routing services, fishermen, and many others.
VSB
Visible Satellite Imagery
VSBY
Visibility
VVSTORM
Model-based convection algorithm.
Warm Occlusion
A frontal zone formed when a cold front overtakes a warm front and, finding colder air ahead of the warm front, leaves the ground and rises up and over this denser air. Compare with cold occlusion.
Warm Sector
A region of warm surface air between a cold front and a warm front.
Wasatch Wind
A strong easterly wind blowing out of the mouths of the canyons of the Wasatch Mountains onto the plains of Utah. Also called canyon wind.
Watch Redefining Statement
This product tells the public which counties/parishes are included in the watch. This is done not only by writing them all out, but by using the county FIPS codes in the Header of the product. It is issued by the local National Weather Service Forecast Office (WFO).
Watch Status Reports
This product lets the NWFO know of the status of the current severe weather watch (Tornado or Severe Thunderstorm). During the severe weather watch, the Storm Prediction Center (SPC) will issue these reports periodically. These reports will describe, in plain language, the current evaluation of the severe weather situation and whether the watch will expire or be reissued. A status report is not issued if a cancellation or replacement has been issued at least 1 hour prior to the expiration time of the original watch.
Water Supply Outlook
A seasonal volume forecast, generally for a period centered around the time of spring snowmelt (e.g., April-July). The outlooks are in units of acre-feet and represent the expected volume of water to pass by a given point during a snowmelt season. The outlook categories include Most Probable, Reasonable Maximum, and Reasonable Minimum.
Watercourse
Any surface flow such as a river, stream, tributary.
Watershed
Land area from which water drains toward a common watercourse in a natural basin.
Waterspout
In general, a tornado occurring over water. Specifically, it normally refers to a small, relatively weak rotating column of air over water beneath a Cb or towering cumulus cloud. Waterspouts are most common over tropical or subtropical waters.

The exact definition of waterspout is debatable. In most cases the term is reserved for small vortices over water that are not associated with storm-scale rotation (i.e., they are the water-based equivalent of landspouts). But there is sufficient justification for calling virtually any rotating column of air a waterspout if it is in contact with a water surface.
Wave Crest
The highest part of a wave
Wave Spectrum
The distribution of wave energy with respect to wave frequency or period. Wave spectra assist in differentiating between wind waves and swell.
Wave Steepness
The ratio of wave height to wavelength and is an indicator of wave stability. When wave steepness exceeds a 1/7 ratio; the wave typically becomes unstable and begins to break.
WDSPRD
Widespread
Weather Forecast Office
(Abbrev. WFO) - this type of National Weather Service office is responsible for issuing advisories, warnings, statements, and short term forecasts for its county warning area
West African Disturbance Line
A line of convection about 300 miles long, similar to a squall line. It forms over west Africa north of the equator and south of 15 degrees North latitude. It moves faster than an Easterly Wave between 20 and 40 mph. They move off the African coast every 4 to 5 days mainly in the summer. Some reach the American tropics and a few develop into tropical cyclones.
West Wall
The coast side boundary of the Gulf Stream, typically south of Cape Hatteras. See also North Wall
Westerlies
The prevailing winds that blow from the west in the mid-latitudes.
Wet Microburst
A microburst accompanied by heavy precipitation at the surface. A rain foot may be a visible sign of a wet microburst.
Widespread
Areal coverage of non-measurable, non-convective weather and/or restrictions to visibility affecting more than 50 percent of a forecast zone(s).
Wildlands
Any nonurbanized land not under extensive agricultural cultivation, e.g., forests, grasslands, rangelands.
Wind Advisory
Sustained winds 25 to 39 mph and/or gusts to 57 mph. Issuance is normally site specific. However, winds of this magnitude occurring over an area that frequently experiences such winds
Wind Chill Advisory
The National Weather Service issues this product when the wind chill could be life threatening if action is not taken. The criteria for this warning varies from state to state.
Wind Gust
Rapid fluctuations in the wind speed with a variation of 10 knots or more between peaks and lulls. The speed of the gust will be the maximum instantaneous wind speed.
Wind Rose
A diagram, for a given locality or area, showing the frequency and strength of the wind from various directions.
Wind Shear
The rate at which wind velocity changes from point to point in a given direction (as, vertically). The shear can be speed shear (where speed changes between the two points, but not direction), direction shear (where direction changes between the two points, but not speed) or a combination of the two.
Wind Shear Profile
The change in wind speed and/or direction usually in the vertical. The characteristics of the wind shear profile are of critical importance in determining the potential for and type of severe weather.
Wind Shift
A change in wind direction of 45 degrees or more in less than 15 minutes with sustained wind speeds of 10 knots or more throughout the wind shift.
Wind Shift Line
A long, but narrow axis across which the winds change direction (usually veer).
Wind Sock
A tapered fabric shaped like a cone that indicates wind direction by pointing away from the wind. It is also called a "wind cone."
Wind Speed
The rate at which air is moving horizontally past a given point. It may be a 2-minute average speed (reported as wind speed) or an instantaneous speed (reported as a peak wind speed, wind gust, or squall).
Wind Waves
Local, short period waves generated from the action of wind on the water surface (as opposed to swell). Commonly referred to as waves. In a National Weather Service Coastal Marine Forecast or Offshore Forecast, wind waves are used when swells are described in the forecast.
or
Waves generated by the local wind blowing at the time of observation.
Winter Solstice
The time at which the sun is farthest south in the Southern Hemisphere, on or around December 21.
Winter Storm Warning
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when a winter storm is producing or is forecast to produce heavy snow or significant ice accumulations. The criteria for this warning can vary from place to place.
Winter Storm Watch
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when there is a potential for heavy snow or significant ice accumulations, usually at least 24 to 36 hours in advance. The criteria for this watch can vary from place to place.
Winter Weather Advisory
This product is issued by the National Weather Service when a low pressure system produces a combination of winter weather (snow, freezing rain, sleet, etc.) that present a hazard, but does not meet warning criteria.
Wrapping Gust Front
A gust front which wraps around a mesocyclone, cutting off the inflow of warm moist air to the mesocyclone circulation and resulting in an occluded mesocyclone.
WSFO
Weather Service Forecast Office
WSHFT
Wind Shift
WSPD
On a buoy report, the wind speed (m/s) averaged over an eight-minute period for buoys and a two-minute period for land stations. Reported Hourly.
WSR-57
A NWS Weather Surveillance Radar designed in 1957. It used to be part of weather radar network. It was replaced by WSR-88D units.
WSR-74
A NWS Weather Surveillance Radar designed in 1974. It used to be part of weather radar network. It was replaced by WSR-88D units.
WSR-88D
Weather Surveillance Radar - 1988 Doppler; NEXRAD unit.
WSR-88D System
The summation of all hardware, software, facilities, communications, logistics, staffing, training, operations, and procedures specifically associated with the collection, processing, analysis, dissemination and application of data from the WSR-88D unit.
WSW
Winter Storm Message
X-Ray Burst
In solar-terrestrial terms, a temporary enhancement of the X-ray emission of the sun. The time-intensity profile of soft X-ray bursts is similar to that of the H-alpha profile of an associated flare.
X-Ray Flare Class
In solar-terrestrial terms, rank of a flare based on its X-ray energy output. Flares are classified by the order of magnitude of the peak burst intensity (I) measured at the earth in the 1 to 8 angstrom band as follows:

ClassIntensity (in Watts/m2)
BI < 10-6
C10-6 <= I < 10-5
M10-5 <= I < 10-4
XI >= 10-4
X-Rays
Very energetic electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths intermediate between 0.01 and 10 nanometers (0.1-100 Angstroms) or between gamma rays and ultraviolet radiation. Essentially all X-Rays from space are absorbed in the Earth's upper atmosphere.
XSEC
Cross Section
Yellow Snow
Snow given a golden or yellow appearance by the presence in it of pine, cypress pollen, or anthropogenic material or animal-produced material.
ZNS
zones
Zone of Saturation
In hydrologic terms, the locus of points below the water table where soil pores are filled with water. This is also called the phreatic zone
Zurich Sunspot Classification
In solar-terrestrial terms, a sunspot classification system that has been modified for SESC use.
Z\/R Relationship
An empirical relationship between radar reflectivity factor z (in mm^6 / m^3 ) and rain rate ( in mm / hr ), usually expressed as Z = A R^b; A and b are empirical constants.

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